TH 6291 
.H35 



IGAL INSTRUCTION SERIES 





PLUMB ERiS' 




P£u^N.f£A§Sl|U(iK: 



Edited by PAI 



House Decor* 

With 79 En; 

Contents. — Col 
Painters. How 
and Decorating 
Walls and Ceilin 
Boot Making <* 
179 Engrav 

Contents. — Re 
and Re-Soling, 
the Heel. Knifi 

How to Write 

Contents. — Th 
Making Signboj 
Shaded and Fai 
ing. Lettering 
Wood Finishir 

ings and Diagrams. 




IES. 



Glass _H_h & £ 3 I 



Book. 



chnical Instruction 



ginq, Painting, etc. 

s, etc. Tools used by 
Qting. Whitewashing 
aa. Embellishment of 

and Finishing. With 

Id Shoes. Re-Welting 

^d Stitching. Making 

toes. 

ivings and Diagrams. 

he Signwriter's Outfit. 

r Forms of Lettering. 

Triting. Poster-Paint- 

Bhing. With Engrav- 



Contents. — Processes of Finishing Wood. Processes of Staining Wood. French Polish- 
ing. Fillers for Wood and Filling In. Bodying In and Spiriting Off. Glazing and 
Wax Finishing. Oil Polishing and Dry Shining. Re-polishing and Reviving. Hard 
Stopping or Beaumontage. Treatment of Floor-Stains. Processes of Varnishing Wood 
Varnishes. Re-polishing Shop Fronts. 
Dynamos and Electric Motors. With 142 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction. Siemens Dynamo. Gramme Dynamo. Manchester Dynamo. 
Simplex Dynamo. Calculating the Size and Amount of Wire for Small Dynamos. 
Ailments of Small Dynamo Electric Machines: their Causes and Cures. Small Electro- 
motors without Castings. How to Determine the Direction of Rotation of a Motor. 
How to Make a Shuttle- Armature Motor. Undertype 50-Watt Dynamo. Manchester 
Type 440-Watt Dynamo. 
Cycle Building and Repairing. With 142 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introductory, and Tools Used. How to Build a Front Driver. Building a 
Rear-driving Safety. Building Tandem Safeties. Building Front-driver Tricycle. Build- 
ing a Hand Tricycle. Brazing. How to Make and Fit Gear Cases. Fittings and Accesso- 
ries. Wheel Making. Tires and Methods of Fixing them. Enamelling. Repairing. 
Decorative Signs of All Ages for All Purposes. With 277 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Savage Ornament. Egyptian Ornament. Assyrian Ornament. Greek 
Ornament. Roman Ornament. Early Christian Ornament. Arabic Ornament. Celtic 
and Scandinavian Ornaments. Mediaeval Ornament. Renascence and Modern Orna- 
ments. Chinese Ornament. Persian Ornament. Indian Ornament. Japanese Ornament. 
Mounting and Framing Pictures. With 240 Engravings, etc. 

Contents. — Making Picture Frames. Notes on Art Frames. Picture Frame Cramps. 
Making Oxford Frames. Gilding Picture Frames. Methods of Mounting Pictures. 
Making Photograph Frames. Frames covered with Plush and Cork. Hanging and 
Packing Pictures. 

Smiths* Work. With 211 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Forges and Appliances. Hand Tools. Drawing Down and Up-setting. 
Welding and Punching. Conditions of Work: Principles of Formation. Bending and 
Ring Making. Miscellaneous Examples of Forged Work. Cranks, Model Work, and 
Die Forging. Home-made Forges. The Manipulation of Steel at the Forge. 

Glass Working by Heat and Abrasion. With 300 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Appliances used in Glass lAwing. Manipulating Glass Tubing. .Blowing 
Bulbs and Flasks. Jointing Tubes to BMds forming Thistle Funnels, etc. Blowing and 
Etching Glass Fancy Articles; Embossiiwmd Gilding Flat Surfaces. Utilising Broken 
Glass Apparatus; Boring Holes in, arjptliveting Glass. Hand-working of Telescope 
Specula. Turning, Chipping, and Grinding Glass. The Manufacture of Glass. 

% DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. 



HANDICRAFT SERIES {Continued). 



Building Model Boats. With 16& Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Building Model Yachts. Rigging and Sailing Model Yachts. Making and 
Fitting Simple Model Boats. Building a Model Atlantic Liner. Vertical Engine for a 
Model Launch. Model Launch Engine with Reversing Gear. Making a Show Case for 
a Model Boat. 

Electric Bells, How to Make and Fit Them. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. 
Contents. — The Electric Current and the Laws that Govern it. Current Conductors 
used in Electric-Bell Work. Wiring for Electric Bells. Elaborated Systems of Wiring; 
Burglar Alarms. Batteries for Electric Bells. The Construction of Electric Bells, Pushes, 
and Switches. Indicators for Electric-Bell Systems. 

Bamboo Work. With 177 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bamboo: Its Sources and Uses. How to Work Bamboo. Bamboo Tables. 
Bamboo Chairs and Seats. Bamboo Bedroom Furniture. Bamboo Hall Racks and Stands. 
Bamboo Music Racks. Bamboo Cabinets and Bookcases. Bamboo Window Blinds. 
Miscellaneous Articles of Bamboo. Bamboo Mail Cart. 

Taxidermy. With 108 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Skinning Birds. Stuffing and Mounting Birds. Skinning and Stuffing 
Mammals. Mounting Animals' Horned Heads: Polishing and Mounting Horns. Skin- 
ning, Stuffing, and Casting Fish. Preserving, Cleaning, and Dyeing Skins. Preserving 
Insects, and Birds' Eggs. Cases for Mounting Specimens. 

Tailoring. With 180 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tailors' Requisites and Methods of Stitching. Simple Repairs and Press- 
ing. Relining, Repocketing, and Recollaring. How to Cut and Make Trousers. How 
to Cut and Make Vests. Cutting and Making Lounge and Reefer Jackets. Cutting and 
Making Morning and Frock Coats. 

Photographic Cameras and Accessories. Comprising How to Make Cameras, 
Dark Slides, Shutters, and Stands. With 160 Illustrations. 
Contents. — Photographic Lenses and How to Test them. Modern Half-plate Cameras. 
Hand and Pocket Cameras. Ferrotype Cameras. Stereoscopic Cameras. Enlarging 
Cameras. Dark Slides. Cinematograph Management. 

Optical Lanterns. Comprising The Construction and Management of Optical 
Lanterns and the Making of Slides. With 160 Illustrations. 
Contents. — Single Lanterns. Dissolving View Lanterns. Illuminant for Optical Lan- 
terns. Optical Lantern Accessories. Conducting a Lime-light Lantern Exhibition. Ex- 
periments with Optical Lanterns. Painting Lantern Slides. Photographic Lantern 
Slides. Mechanical Lantern Slides. Cinematograph Management. 

Engraving Metals. With Numerous Illustrations. 

Contents. — Introduction and Terms used. Engravers' Tools and their Uses. Ele- 
mentary Exercises in Engraving. Engraving Plate and Precious Metals. Engraving 
Monograms. Transfer Process of Engraving Metals. Engraving Name Plates. En- 
graving Coffin Plates. Engraving Steel Plates. Chasing and Embossing Metals. Etch- 
ing Metals. 

Basket Work. With 189 Illustrations. 

Contents. — Tools and Materials. Simple Baskets. Grocer's Square Baskets. Round 
Baskets. Oval Baskets. Flat Fruit Baskets. Wicker Elbow Chairs. Basket Bottle- 
casings. Doctors' and Chemists' Baskets. Fancy Basket Work. Sussex Trug Basket. 
Miscellaneous Basket Work. Index. 

Bookbinding. With 125 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bookbinders' Appliances. Folding Printed Book Sheets. Beating ana 
Sewing. Rounding; Backing, and Cover Cutting. Cutting Book Edges. Covering 
Books. Cloth-bound Books, Pamphlets, etc. Account Books, Ledgers, etc. Coloring, 
Sprinkling, and Marbling Book Edges. Marbling Book Papers. Gilding Book Edges. 
Sprinkling and Tree Marbling Book Covers. Lettering, Gilding, and Finishing Book 
Covers. Index. 

Bent Iron Work. Including Elementary Art Metal Work. With 269 Engravings 
and Diagrams. 
Contents. — Tools and Materials. Bending and Working Strip Iron. Simple Exercises 
in Bent Iron. Floral Ornaments for Bent Iron Work. Candlesticks. Hall Lanterns. 
Screens, Grilles, etc. Table Lamps. Suspended Lamps and Flower Bowls. Photo- 
graph Frames. Newspaper Rack. Floor Lamps. Miscellaneous Examples. Index. 

Photography. With Numerous Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — The Camera and its Accessories. The Studio and the Dark Room. Plates. 
Exposure. Developing and Fixing Negatives. Intensification and Reduction of Nega- 
tives. Portraiture and Picture Composition. Flash-light Photography. Retouching 
Negatives. Processes of Printing from Negatives. Mounting and Finishing Prints. 
Copying and Enlarging. Stereoscopic Photography. Ferrotype Photography. 

DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. 



HANDICRAFT SERIES (Continued). 



Upholstery. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Upholsterers' Materials. Upholsterers' Tools and Appliances. Webbing, 
Springing, Stuffing, and Tufting. Making Seat Cushions and Squabs. Upholstering an 
Easy Chair. Upholstering Couches and Sofas. Upholstering Footstools, Fenderettes, 
etc. Miscellaneous Upholstery. Mattress Making and Repairing. Fancy Upholstery. 
Renovating and Repairing Upholstered Furniture. Planning and Laying Carpets and 
Linoleum. Index. 

Leather Working. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Qualities and Varieties of Leather. Strap Cutting and Making. Letter 
Cases and Writing Pads. Hair Brush and Collar Cases. Hat Cases. Banjo and Man- 
doline Cases. Bags. Portmanteaux and Travelling Trunks. Knapsacks and Satchels. 
Leather Ornamentation. Footballs. Dyeing Leather. Miscellaneous Examples of 
Leather Work. Index. 

Harness Making. With 197 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Harness Makers' Tools. Harness Makers' Materials. Simple Exercises in 
Stitching. Looping. Cart Harness. Cart Collars. Cart Saddles. Fore Gear and Leader 
Harness. Plough Harness. Bits, Spurs, Stirrups, and Harness Furniture. Van and Cab 
Harness. Index. 

Saddlery. With 99 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Gentleman's Riding Saddle. Panel for Gentleman's Saddle. Ladies' Side 
Saddles. Children's Saddles or Pilches. Saddle Cruppers, Breastplates, and other 
Accessories. Riding Bridles. Breaking-down Tackel. Head Collars. Horse Clothing. 
Knee-caps and Miscellaneous Articles. Repairing Harness and Saddlery. Re-lining 
Collars and Saddles. Riding and Driving Whips. Superior Set of Gig Harness. Index. 

Knotting and Splicing, Ropes and Cordage. With 208 Engravings and Diagrams. 
Contents. — Introduction. Rope Formation. Simple and Useful Knots. Eye Knots, 
Hitches and Bends. Ring Knots and Rope Shortenings. Ties and Lashings. Fancy 
Knots. Rope Splicing. Working Cordage. Hammock Making. Lashings and Ties for 
Scaffolding. Splicing aDd Socketing Wire Ropes. Index. 

Beehives and Beekeepers' Appliances. With 155 Engravings and Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction. A Bar-Frame Beehive. Temporary Beehive. Tiering Bar- 
Frame Beehive. The " W. B. C." Beehive. Furnishing and Stocking a Beehive. Obser- 
vatory Beehive for Permanent Use. Observatory Beehive for Temporary Use. Inspection 
Case for Beehives. Hive for Rearing Queen Bees. Super-Clearers. Bee Smoker. 
Honey Extractors. Wax Extractors. Beekeepers' Miscellaneous Appliances. Index. 

Ready Shortly : 

Electro Plating. 

Other Volumes in Preparation, 

DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. 



PRACTICAL 
PLUMBERS' WORK 



WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS 



EDITED BY 

PAUL K.' HASLUCK 

\ \ 

HONOURS MEDALLIST IN TECHNOLOGY, 

EDITOR OF "WORK" AND "BUILDING WORLD," 

AUTHOR OF "HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS," ETC. ETC. 



PHILADELPHIA 
DAVID McKAY, Publisher 

610 SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE 

1905 



A 




s - 






>e 



■: 






£ 



t- 



PREFACE. 

rr — - 

Peactical Plumbees' Woek contains, in a form convenient 
for everyday use, a comprehensive digest of information con- 
tributed by experienced craftsmen, scattered over the columns 
of Building Woeld, one of the weekly journals it is my fortune 
to edit, and supplies concise information on the general principles 
and practice of the art on which it treats. 

In preparing for publication in book form the mass of relevant 
matter contained in the Journal, much of it necessarily had to 
be re-arranged and re- written. The bulk of the matter and 
illustrations contained in this book were contributed by my 
old time colleague at Eegent Street Polytechnic, Mr. J. Wright 
Clarke, the authority on Practical Plumbers' Work, and he 
has kindly revised the whole of the proofs of this present manual. 

Readers who may desire additional information respecting 
special details of the matters dealt with in this book, or instruc- 
tion on any building trade subjects, should address a question to 
Building Woeld, so that it may be answered in the columns of 
that journal. 

P. N. HASLUCK. 

La Belle Sauvage, London. 
June, 1905, 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER 

I.— Introductory : Materials and Tools Used . 
II.— Solder and How to Make It 
III.— Sheet Lead Working 
IV.— Pipe Bending. 
V. — Pipe Jointing 
VI.— Lead Burning 
VII. — Lead-work on Roofs 
Index 



PAGE 
10 

25 

31 

46 

55 

87 
105 
15 ( 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. PAGE 


1.— Sheet Lead Casting Shop . 


11 


2.— Adjustable Lever . 


18 


3, 4.— Copper Bits 


18 


5.— Brass Blowpipe . 


18 


6.— Cold Chisel .... 


18 


7.— Bend Bolt .... 


18 


8.— Hand Dummy 


18 


9.— Compasses .... 


18 


10.— Catspaw Cloth 


18 


11.— Dresser 


18 


12.— Bending Dresser . 


18 


13.— Chalk Line and Reel . 


18 


14.— Wiping Cloth .... 


18 


15. — Hammer .... 


18 


16.— Quench Hook . 


18 


17.— Shave Hook .... 


18 


18.— Long Dummy . 


18 


19.— Gauge Hook . 


18 


20.— Bent Shave Hook . 


18 


21.— Spoon Hook . 


18 


22.— Ladle .... 


18 


23.— Soldering Iron 


18 


24.— Chipping Knife 


18 


25— Bossing Mallet 


18 


26.— Drawing Knife 


18 


27, 28.— Mallets 


18 


29.— Jack Plane with Metal Sole 


19 


30— Cutting Pliers 


19 


31.— Steel Fixing Point 


19 


32. — Shears .... 


19 


33.— Solder Pot 


19 


34.-Rule .... 


19 


35.— Two-hole Pliers 


19 


36.— Rasp .... 


19 


37. — Square .... 


19 


38.— Screwdriver . 


19 


39.— Bending Stick 


19 


40.— Saw 


19 


41. — Bossing Stick . 


19 


42.— Settmg-in Stick . . 


19 


43, 44.— Turnpins . 


19 


45.— Bent Wedge . 


19 


46, 47.— Bevel Wedges . 


19 


48, 49.— Chase Wedges . 


19 


50.— Thumb Wedge 


19 


51, 52.— Wrenches . 


19 


53-55.— Plumber's Tool-chest 2 


I, 22 


56, 57.— Ingot .... 


27 


58, 59.— Cast of Solder . 


27 


60, 61.— Mould for Strip Solder 


28 


62. — Plain Seam Soldered Joint 


. 30 


63.— Soldered Dot on Sheet Lead 


L 30 


64, 65.— Copper-bit Joint 


. 30 


66-71— Wiped Joints . 


. 30 


72-74.— Lead Tray or Safe . 


. 32 


75-78.— Lead Bossing . 


33-35 


79, 80.— Break 


. 36 


81, 82.— Lining of Sink . 


. 37 


83.— Corner of Sink 


. 38 


84.— Splash-stick .' 


. 38 



FIG. PAGE 

85— Waste-pipe with P-trap . 38 
86.— Dished Hole and Angle . 39 
87.— Pattern for Sink Lining . 39 
88.— Waste-pipe for Lead Sink . 40 
89.— Lead Sink .... 40 
90.— Cistern for Lead-lining . 43 
91.— Bending of Lead Pipes . 46 
82— Boxwood Mandrel . . 46 
93.— Dummies . . . .47 
94.— Sheet-lead Flapper . . 48 
95.— Stages of Pipe-bending . 48 
96.— Buckle in Bend ... 49 
97.— Bobbin, Weight, and Cord . 49 
98— Section of Weight . . 49 
99.— Ball and Follower, and 

their Use .... 50 
100.— Lead Bend . . . .51 
101— Lead Elbow . . . .51 
102.— Offset on Soil-pipe . . 51 
103.— Return Bend . . . .51 
104.— Soldered Elbow ... 51 
105.— Hand-made Trap ... 52 

106.— P-trap 52 

107.— S-trap . . . . .53 

108.— Anti-D-trap . . . .53 

109, 110.— Copper Bit Joint . . 56 
111, 112— Ribbon Joint ... 58 
113, 114— Copper Bit Overcast 

Joint ... . . .56 

115, 116.— Flange Joint . . .56 
117, 118— Wiped Joint ... 56 
119, 120— Overcast Joint . . 56 
121, 122.— Block Taft Joint . . 57 
123, 124.— Block Flange Joint . 57 
125, 126.— Astragal Joint . . 58 
127.— Bird's Mouth Joint . . 58 
128, 129— Taft Joints ... 58 
130, 131— Joint of Service Pipe 

to Cistern . . . . 58 

132-136.— Branch Soil-pipe Joints 59 
137.— Burned-lead Branch Joint . 60 
138.— Horizontal Branch Joint . 60 
139.— Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to 

Stoneware Drain . . 61 
140.— Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to 

Cast-iron Bend . . .61 
141. — Water-closet Connections . 63 

142.— Dresser 64 

143.— Proving Squareness of 

Pipe End . . . .64 
144. — Lead Pipes Prepared for 

Jointing .... 64 
145.— Gauge for Marking Pipes . 65 
146.— Pipes Fixed for Wiping . 65 
147, 148.— Joint Wiping . . 66, 67 
149.— Wiped Joint . . . .67 
150, 151.— Collars for Catching 

Wasted Metal ... 69 
152. — Upright Joint ready for 

Wiping . . . .70 



-PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



FIG. PAGE 

153. — Pipes Ready for Fitting . 71 
154.— Wiping Upright Joint . 71 
155. — Brass Ring and Solder 

Joint 73 

156.— Lead Pipe Screw Coupling 74 
157.— Plumber's Soldering Lamp 75 
158.— Socket on Lead Pipe . . 76 
159.— Badly-made Branch Joint . 76 
160.— Bolt-pin or Tommy . . 76 
161-163.— Wiping Branch Joint 76, 78 
164.— Bad and Good Taft Joints . 79 
165.— Section of Flange Joint . 79 
166 —Cast Tack and Pipe . . 80 
167.— Folding Tack and Pipe . 81 
168.— Soldered Face Tack . . 83 
169, 170.— Wiped Joint on Cop- 
per Pipes . . . .83 
171.— Tool for Making Joints . 85 
172.— Copper-bit Joint ... 85 
173. — Branch Joint in Composi- 
tion Pipes . . . .85 
174.— Gas-generating Machine . 91 
175.— Hand Bellows ... 91 
176.— Air-chamber of Lead-burn- 
ing Machine ... 92 
177.— Gas-generator ... 93 
178.— Breeches Piece . . .93 
179-182.— Hydrogen Generator 95, 96 
183.— Riveted Seam ... 96 
184.— Hand Hole Cap ... 97 
185, 186.— Junction Piece . . 97 

187.— Jet 98 

188-191.— Air Machine . . 99, 100 
192.— Butted Seam Partly Burnt 101 
193.— Lapped Seam Partly Burnt 101 
194.— Horizontal or Side Burning 102 
195.— Vertical or Upright Burn- 
ing 102 

196.— Burning Upright Joint . 103 
197.— Branch Joint Ready for 

Burning . . . .103 
198.— Lap Joint . . . .106 
199.— Plain Soldered Joint . . 106 
200.— Single or Nail Welt . . 106 
201.— Double Welt . . .106 

202.— Welted Edge of Lead Flat . 107 
203.— Secret Tack . . . .307 
204.— Solid Wood Roll . . .107 
205.— Hollow Roll . . . .107 
206.— Seam Roll . . . .108 
207.— Section of Ridge Roll . . 108 
203.— Section of Secret Hip Roll 108 
209.— Square Gutter Drip . . 109 
210.— Splayed Gutter Drip . . 109 
211.— Hollownose Drip . . .109 
212.— Bottlenose Drips . . .109 
213— Welted Drip . . . .109 
214.— Roll End and Drip . . 109 
215.— Roll with Water Groove . 110 
216-218.— Taurus or Curb Roll 110, 111 
219.— Seam Roll with Bossed 

Ends Ill 

220— Finished Roll with Bossed 

Ends 112 

221.— Section of Seam Roll . . 112 
222, 223.— Raglet , , . .113 



FIG. P4GE 

224.— Soldered Dot . . . . 113 
225-223.— Gutter Cesspools . 113, 114 
229.— Drip and Cesspool with 
Socket Pipe through 
End Wall . . . .115 
230.— Parapet Box Gutter . . 115 
231.— Box Gutter . . . .116 

232.— Drip 116 

233.— Setting out Lead for Gutter 116 
234.— Scribing Gauge . . .116 
235-237.— Parapet Gutters . 117, 118 
238, 239— Valley Gutter . . 119 
240.— Section of Cornice Gutter . 120 
241.— Upright Gutter . . .120 
242-245.— Secret Gutters . 120, 121 
246.— Plan of Drip in Box Gutter 12-3 
247.— Elevation of Lap on Curb . 123 
248.— Section of Curb . . .123 
249.— Section Showing Water 

Groove . . . .123 
250-252.— Overcloaks . . .124 
253— Setting Out Lead Flat . 125 
254.— Lead Soakers . . .128 
255— Hip with Soakers . . 129 
256.— Ridge End and Step Flash- 
ing 130 

257.— Chimney Flashing . . 131 
258.— Chimney Break . . . 132 
259, 260— Stepped Flashing . 133 
261.— Burning in Lead Flashings 134 
262.— Sectiou of Flashing and 

Stick 135 

263.— Roof Outline . . . .136 
264.— Plan of Roof Slope . . 136 
265. — Section showing Lap . . 136 
266.— Section showing Water 

Groove . . . .136 
267.— Lead for Covering Ridge . 137 
268. — Lead-covered Ridge . . 137 
269-271.— Dormer Window . . 138 
272.— Secret Soldered Tack . .139 
273.— Alternative to Soldered 

Tack 139 

274-277.— Roof Doorway . 139, 140 
278.— Section of Doorway Cill . 140 
279.— Lead-covered Hatch . 141 

280.— Section through Gutter . 142 
281.— Furnished Hatch Cover . 142 
282, 283.— Trap-door in Lead Flat 142 
284— Plan of Lead Flat and Sky- 
light ... .143 
285, 286.— Enlarged Detail of 

Skylight . . . .144 
287, 288.— Sections of Skylight . 145 
239.— Plan of Skylight on Slated 

Roof ... 145 

290, 291.— Sections of Skvlight . 146 
292— Side Elevation of Turret 

Roof . . . 147 

293.— Roll Before Folding . 148 

294.— Lead Bav for Turret Roof . 149 
295.— Section of Centre Roll . 149 
296.— Octagonal Turret Roof . 1^0 
297.— Lead Bay for Octagonal 

Turret Roof . . . .151 
^98.— Lead-covered Finial i • 154 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' 
WORK. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY: MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 

A comprehensive treatise on plumbers' work would need 
a large volume ; for the modern plumber is expected to 
supplement an intimate acquaintance with the common or 
immediate facts and principles of his craft by more than a 
smattering of applied science. 

The title is taken from "plumbum," the Latin name for 
lead ; whence plumber, a worker in lead. The origin of the 
craft is lost in oblivion, but references are made in Scripture 
to lead as material of commerce. In early times plumbers 
had to cast their own materials, such as sheets and pipes ; 
sheet lead is used for roof coverings, such as "flats," 
" gutters," " flashings," etc., and pipes for the conveyance of 
water into or from houses. Cisterns and pumps were made 
and fixed by him, as were also lead coffins or wooden shells 
lined or covered with that metal, lead figures cast solid or 
with sand cores, and a variety of utensils. In the present 
day the plumber is still a worker in lead in a manufactured 
state, but he has had more responsibilities pressed upon him. 
In addition to being skilful in the manipulation of the mate- 
rials he uses, he is regarded as a responsible person in all 
questions of domestic sanitation and water supply. 

The duties of the plumber may be summed up under three 
heads : (1) keeping water out of houses (roof work) ; (2) 
getting water into houses, and storing and distributing it 
where required for use ; (3) getting it out of houses after it 



10 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK 

has served its purpose. In some places the plumber is also 
a painter, glazier, paper-hanger, gasfitter, hot-water fitter, 
bell-hanger, coppersmith, tinsmith, locksmith, etc. One 
book of convenient size cannot treat all these branches, and 
the scope of the present volume is restricted to working in 
lead. 

Lead (chemical symbol Pb, an abbreviation of the Latin 
word plumbum) is the material chiefly worked upon by the 
plumber. It is made by roasting galena, a native sulphide 
(consisting of 13*3 parts of sulphur to 86 of lead) in rever- 
beratory furnaces, at a dull red heat, by which most of the 
sulphide becomes changed by oxidation to sulphate. The 
contents of the furnace are then thoroughly mixed, and the 
temperature is raised, when the sulphate and sulphide react 
upon each other, producing a sulphurous oxide and metallic 
lead. 

Lead mining is carried on in Derbyshire and the North 
of England, as well as in Cornwall, in the Isle of Man, and 
at Leadhills, in Scotland. Spain, however, with about 120 
thousand metric tons annually, is the greatest lead-producing 
country in Europe, the other countries being arranged in the 
following order with respect to the quantities produced, the 
figures after each representing thousands of metric tons (the 
metric ton is equal to 0*984 imperial ton) : Germany, 90 ; 
England, 67 ; France, 15 ; Italy, 10 ; Greece, 9 ; Belgium, 8 ; 
Austria, 6 ; and Russia, lj. The annual output of the United 
States of America is reckoned at 110,000 tons ; and of late 
years the annual output in Australasia has been reckoned at 
between 50,000 and 60,000 tons. 

Load melts at about 617° F., it expands greatly on heating, 
and does not always return to its original dimensions. The 
qualities that render it useful for such a large variety of pur- 
poses are its durability, easy fusibility, flexibility, mallea- 
bility, and elasticity. It is oxidised by moist air, and 
pure water containing oxygen dissolves lead oxide when 
placed in contact with the metal; for which reason lead 
cisterns ought never to serve for collecting rainwater for 
domestic use. The basic acetate of lead formed by exposing 
the metal to acid fumes (as the vapour of vinegar) is decom- 
posed by carbonic acid, forming a carbonate of lead, which, 
when washed and purified by levigation, is ready for use 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USER 



11 



as a paint — the well-known and universally applied white- 
lead. Litharge is obtained by oxidising lead in a rever- 
beratory furnace, and the product, when further roasted, 
forms the higher oxide known as red-lead — also used as a 




r3 
III 

bu 



c3 

o 






bo 
S 



paint. Lead has a specific gravity of 11*4; its atomic 
weight is 207. 

It may be useful here to explain the expressions specific 
gravity and atomic weight. Specific gravity commonly 



12 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

means the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal 
volume of water, the water being taken at a definite tempera- 
ture, usually at the temperature at which its density is 
greatest — namely, 4° C (39*2° F.). Fownes states, however, 
that " in all cases of solids and liquids the standard of 
unity adopted in this country is pure water at the tempera- 
ture of 15*5° C. or 60° F." The specific gravity of a sub- 
stance is, then, the ratio of its density to that of the 
standard substance. In other words, specific gravity de- 
notes the weight of a body, as compared with the weight 
of an equal bulk or volume of the standard body, which is 
reckoned as unity. In speaking of atomic weight, the 
standard of comparison is an atom of hydrogen, so that to 
say that the atomic weight of lead is 207 is to imply that 
an atom of lead is 207 times as heavy as an atom of 
hydrogen. 

Lead comes into the hands of the plumber in a manufac- 
tured form as cast pigs, sheets, or pipes. The pigs of lead 
are generally the pure lead as it leaves the furnaces, and 
weigh from 1 cwt. to 1^ cwt. each. Sheet lead is either cast 
cr milled. Fig. 1 shows all the appliances necessary for 
making cast sheets of lead. It is necessary to have a good- 
sized and well-lighted shop, with stone or paved floor ; a 
" casting-frame " A made of wood and having its sides and one 
end raised ; a metal trough with stoppered ends or " head- 
pan " b at the highest end ; another trough with one stopped 
and one open -end, called a " footpan," c at the lower end of 
the frame ; a cast-iron melting " pot " G set in brickwork, and 
having flues round and a fireplace beneath, and a load or two 
of fine loamy sand. The tools used are two 28-lb. ladles l ; 
a piece of board the same length as the width of the frame, 
and having handles projecting about 18 in. over the sides, 
called the strike e ; a pair of " planes " f made of sheet 
copper with edges curved up and handles in the centre, 
similar to a square float used by plasterers ; a waggon d 
which is a large bowl on wheels for conveying spare lead 
back to the pot ; a " drawing-knife " n for cutting off the 
bottom edge of the sheet after casting ; a pair of " sheet- 
hooks 5; o ; a pair of " handspikes," and a couple of " rollers " 
for shifting the sheets after casting, or a swinging or small 
travelling crane for the same purpose ; " felts " for holding 
the ladles, a broom i for sweeping up spilleol lead, a " sieve " 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 13 

J for screening the sand, a watering-pot m, and a couple of 
shovels K. 

Milled lead is manufactured by casting a cake of lead and 
then passing it between large rollers until it is reduced to the 
desired thickness. Milled sheets are made from 20 ft. to 
40 ft. long, and from 6 ft. 9 in. to 9 ft. wide. Sheet-lead is 
described as being five-, six-, or seven-pound lead. This 
signifies that one square foot of lead will weigh such a number 
of pounds. It is difficult to mill lead to a less thickness than 
3-lb. ('051 of an inch), because of its want of tenacity. The 
weights of sheet-lead vary from 3 lb. to 14 lb. per foot super. ; 
above this weight it is usual to describe the milled lead as 
plates. 

In lead casting, the first operation is to fill the pot with 
lead and light the fire. The frame is then prepared by cover- 
ing it with the sand, which has been sifted, wetted with 
water, and thoroughly mixed and spread evenly by means of 
the strike. After beating down with the shovels and again 
making even with the strike, the sand is " planed " until it 
is quite even and has a hard, compact surface. " Muffles " 
are then put on the handles to raise the strike off the sand 
bed, the thickness being according to the substance of l°ad 
required. The headpan, which is of the width of the frame 
and has a lip resting on the top end, is then filled with molten 
lead ladled from the pot. When the lead has cooled — until 
it ceases to scorch a piece of white wood dipped in it — two 
men take up positions at the top end, one on each side of the 
frame, and hold the strike in readiness ; the contents of the 
pan are then upset by another man on to the frame, and the 
strikers immediately drop the strike on to the edges and run 
down to the bottom end of the frame, pushing the spare lead 
into the footpan, whence it runs into the waggon, and is 
dragged back to and emptied into the pot. Should the lead in 
the waggon be too cold for ladling, an iron ring or hook is 
partly immersed, so that when cold enough the lead can be 
lifted bodily into the pot. Immediately the strikers have 
done their part, a man with the drawing-knife cuts off the 
bottom selvedge so as to allow the sheet to contract, as it 
cools, without cracking. The lead is then rolled up and re- 
moved from the frame ; the sand is sifted, re-wetted, and the 
whole proceedings repeated. 



U PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. 

For making milled sheets, the lead is first melted in a 
large pot set in brickwork, and then run into a square mould, 
the size being according to the intended width of the sheet. 
An ordinary size is 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 6 in. deep. After being 
run into the mould, and while still molten, the lead is 
skimmed until all floating dross or dirt is removed. The cake 
of lead, which is of the size of the mould by 5 in. deep, and 
weighs about 7 tons, is allowed to set. It is then hoisted by 
means of a crane on to 1 the mill, which consists of a frame 
usually about 60 ft. or 70 ft. long by 7 ft. 4 in. wide (some mills 
are larger, and can turn out sheets 9 ft. wide), with cross 
rollers the whole length of the frame, and two large steel 
rollers in the centre, one being above the other. These large 
rollers, with adjusting screws to regulate the space between 
them, are turned by powerful machinery. The cake of lead 
is run on the travelling rollers, then passed between the 
larger ones, which reduce it in thickness and make it longer. 
It is then drawn back by the large rollers, which have been 
adjusted closer together, and is further elongated and reduced 
in thickness. 

When this process has been repeated until the sheet is 
about 1 in. thick, it is cut up by machine-worked shears into 
suitable lengths, according to the desired weights per foot of 
the finished sheets. These pieces, one at a time, are further 
rolled out and then folded, or doubled, in the middle and 
again rolled. The two sheets at the finish are each 34 ft. or 
36 ft. long by 7 ft. wide, and weigh 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or any other 
number of pounds per square foot. When the sheets are 
passing between the rollers for the last time, cutters are 
arranged at the sides of the frame to cut off the side edges ; 
the ends are trimmed by hand. An iron mandrel is laid 
across each sheet, and the lead is dressed on to the mandrel, 
winch handles being subsequently fixed on the ends. These 
are turned by hand, and the lead is wound round them. The 
sheets are then corded and tied, rolled or hoisted on to a 
weighing-machine, and stamped with number, length, total 
weight, and weight per foot, after which they are ready for 
the market. The quality of lead may be judged by its soft- 
ness and malleability, hardness denoting the presence of im- 
purities. Plumbers tell the weight of ordinary sheet lead 
by simply feeling it with their fingers or measuring it with 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 15 

their rule. The specific gravity of lead is 1T4 ; hence a 
square 1 in. thick weighs 59 lb., and for 6-lb. lead a square foot 
is about 0*1 in. thick. Some tool-makers keep notched 
gauges for the purpose, but the most accurate method is 
to square up the lead and weigh it. 

Lead pipes used by the Eomans were made of long strips 
of sheet lead bent cylindrical and joined at the edges. 
Haydn's " Dictionary of Dates " says that lead pipes for the 
conveyance of water were brought into use in the year 1236 
— in what country is not stated. It is quite evident, how- 
ever, that they had been used long before that date. The 
pipes for the first London waterworks were of lead, and the 
works were builb by a Dutchman named Peter Morris (or, 
according to a more probably correct version, Maurice), in 
the year 1582. 

Up to the year 1741 lead pipes, so far as can be traced, 
had been made by hand, but in that year James Creed in- 
vented a machine for their manufacture on a large scale. 
This machine cut the lead up in strips to the width required 
for the given diameter of pipe. These strips were turned 
into pipes by means of rollers ; between the rollers was 
placed a ball, which produced the inside diameter of the 
pipe, and at the same time the edges were scraped fib for 
soldering by a tool fixed on the frame which held the ball. 

Lead pipes were first rolled solid in the year 1790. In that 
year, John Wilkinson, of Berwick-upon-Tweed, cast lead 
ingots in lengths, and put them on bars of iron, or of other 
metal harder than lead. These bars, or mandrels, as 
they are usually termed, he varied in length and diameter 
according to the size of pipe required. The mandrel, with 
the lead upon it, and extended to the length and thickness of 
the pipe manufactured, he passed repeatedly between rollers 
with grooves of different sizes, according to the external 
diameter required. He also claimed the process of drawing 
the lead ingots through metal gauges or dies of different 
diameters, after the lead has been placed on the mandrel, 
each succeeding die being less than the previous one, until 
the same was extended to the length and thickness required. 
The mandrel was then withdrawn, leaving a pipe of even 
diameter and thickness and of uniform length. 

Knowledge of the deleterious effect of lead pipe uporj 



16 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

potable water induced many chemists and other ingenious 
inventors to attempt improvements upon the ordinary lead 
pipes, and amongst these are found lead pipes lined with 
tin, which invention was secured by patent to George 
Alderson in 1804. 

One of the greatest — perhaps the greatest of all — improve- 
ments in lead and composition pipes was made by John 
Hague, in the year 1822, when he patented and introduced his 
solid pressing arrangement. The pipes manufactured upon 
this principle for gas and water supply services are now al- 
most universally employed, especially for the former pur- 
posev These pipes are forced out by means of hydraulic pres- 
sure through a die or core placed in the bottom of a cast-iron 
mould. Pipes of this description are much cheaper and much 
more reliable than those made in strips and soldered at the 
joints. In fact, Hague's patent completely revolutionised 
the lead pipe trade. 

The hand-made lead pipe is made out of sheet lead, and 
the solid pipe is pressed out of solid lead by means of a pipe 
press, worked by powerful machinery. Each kind used as 
soil pipes has its advantages and advocates, and there is not 
much difference in efficiency and durability when the seam in 
the hand-made pipe is properly wiped or floated with ladle 
and iron. The machine-made pipe is the easiest to manipu- 
late when it is necessary to make bends in it. When the 
pipes are used for conveying soft water, or acids, or other 
corroding agents, the seamless pipes are the best, as in some 
cases the solder is eaten away by the acids, and in others 
electrolysis sets up owing to two metals^ lead and tin, being 
in contact in the presence of moisture. 

Machine-made lead pipe is made now by pressing lead 
in a semi-molten state though dies by hydraulic machinery. 
The presses are of two or three different kinds. The com- 
monest consists of a very strong cast-iron cylinder with closed 
top, in which are fixed the die and core of the size of the 
intended pipe. The bottom of the cylinder fits fairly tight, 
and slides up and down as it is pushed or pulled by a shaft 
connected to a piston in another cylinder beneath, which 
contains water under a great pressure. The piston being 
lowered, and the top chamber empty, the latter is filled with 
melted lead through an opening which is afterwards closed 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 17 

with an iron plug and fastened. On turning on the water to 
the lower cylinder, the piston is forced upwards and the lead 
pushed out of the die at the top in the form of pipe. If small, 
the latter is wound on a wooden drum as it escapes ; if large, 
it is supported by a cord attached to the upper end and 
carried over a pulley above, the free end being held tight 
by a man. The hydraulic pressure in the "ram," or lower 
cylinder, is from 1 ton to 15 tons per square inch, according 
to the size of the pipe being made. This pressure is derived 
from a series of pumps, w r orked by steam or other power, and 
is steadied by an " accumulator," which not only helps to keep 
the pressure even, but stores up the power in case of stop- 
page. Should the pumps be kept working when the pipe- 
press is stopped, gearing, attached to the accumulator, opens 
a valve to relieve the excess of water pressure, or throttles 
the supply of steam to the pumps. 

To find the w r eight of a lead pipe of any thickness and 
diameter: — Eule : Subtract the square of the internal dia- 
meter of the pipe from the square of the external diameter — 
both in inches — and multiply the remainder by 3*86 ; the 
result w411 be the weight of the pipe in pounds per foot run. 

The thickness of lead pipe required to withstand a given 
pressure may be calculated by the following rule : Multiply 
the head of water in feet by the radius of the pipe in inches 
and by '433, and divide the product by 2,745, which latter 
equals the tensile strength of the lead in pounds per square 
inch. The result equals the thickness of pipe required in 
fractions of an inch. Or: Multiply the head of water in 
feet by the diameter of pipe in inches, and by 0*0000787. For 
each of these results a factor of safety of 10 is required, hence 
the last rule becomes : — 

' T = H X D X 0-000787 
in which T represents the thickness of the pipe in fractions 
of an inch. 

The illustrations on pp. 18 and 19, Figs. 2 to 52, show 
a few of the tools that are in ordinary use. The name 
of each tool is given under its illustration, and further in- 
formation, other than that obtainable in trade catalogues, 
is unnecessary. A large number of tools is necessary for 
special work, or work that has to be done under difficulties, 
or has complicated parts. 



18 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 




Fig. 3— Straight Copper 
Bit. 



Fig. 2.— Adjustable Bevel. 



C=& 



^^ Fig. 1.— Hatchet Copper Bit. 



Fig. 5.— Brass Blowpipe. 



I >— t— >„JL» 
Fig. 6.— Cold Chisel. 



Fig. 9.— Compasses 

5! 



V 



o 



Fig. 7.— Bend Bolt. 



=^> 



Fig. 8.— Hand Dummy 




V\(r iQ ~ Fig. 12.— Bending Dresser. 

Fig. 14 -Wiping ohS&e _ 



Cloth. 



and Reel. 




Fig. 16.— Quench Hook. 



Fig. 15.— Hammer. 



c=^=0 



Fig. 20.— Bent Shave 
Hook. y\ 



Shave 



Fig. 19.— Gauge 
Hook. 



Fig. 21.— Spoon 
Hook. 





Fig. 23.- Soldering- 
iron. 



Fig. 18.— Long 
Dummy. 



n 



Fig. 26.— Drawing 
Knife. 



( o o oL. — -— -* 
Fig. 24.— Chippinr Knife. 



y J'n&x 



ID 



: 25,— Bossing Mallet. 



D 



' Fig. 27— Tomahawk Mallet. 



Fig. 28.— Wedge Mallet. 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 



29 



^5l 



Fig. 30.— Cutting Pliers. 



Fig. 29.- Jack Plane 
with Metal Sole. c 




Fig. 31.— Steel Fixing Point. 



■0£ 



P 



Fig. 32.— Shears. 



Fig. 31.— Bule. 
Fig. 33.-Solder ^^i^il^^^^PPPpp^-f " 

Fig. 36.— Rasp, 



Fig. 35.- 
Two-hole 
Pliers. 



Fig. 37.-Square. 



tn 



Fig. 33.— Screwdriver. 



3 



n=0 



C 



Fig. 33.— Bending Stick. 




Fig. 43— Small 
Fig. 4i.-Large Turnpin. 
Turnpin. 

n 



Fig. 42.— Set- 
ting-in Stick. 



1) ^ 




A 







Fig. 45.- 

Eent 
Wedge. 



Fig. 46.- 

ISj arrow 

Bevel 

Wedge. 



Fig. 47.— 
Wide 
Bevel 

Wedge. 



Fig. 48.— 

K arrow 

Chase 

Wedge. 



Fig. 49.— 

Wide 

Chase 

Wedge. 



Fig. 50.— 
Thumb 
Wedge, 



Fig. 52.— Screw Wrench. 



Fig. 51.— Shark's 
Jaw Wrench. 



20 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The following table is introduced to show at a glance the 
different thicknesses and weights of lead pipes commonly 



A 


B 


C 


D 

35 


A 


B 


c 
10 


D 


f 


Thin 


Zh 




{ 


Thin 


17 




Middle 


4 


32 




! 


» 


11 


16 


i H 


Strong 


4i 


28 


ii 


i 

-: 

i 


Middle 


12 


14 




5) 


5 


24 or 48 


55 


12* 


13 


I 


n 


5J 


22 or 44 




i 


Strong 


14 


12 




Thin 


3 


39 




i 


5) 


16 


11 




55 


3| 


35 






Thin 


12 


14 




Middle 


4 


32 








14 


12 


i * 


Strong 


4i 


28 


ii 


< 


Middle 


15^ 


11 


>j 


5 


48 






Strong 


l'f 


9 




?? 


6 


38 






55 


21 


8 




55 


7 


33 




! 


Thin 


15 


11 




J> 


8 


33 


il 


-; 


Middle 


17 


10 


! 


Thin 


4| 


28 




i 


Strong- 


19 


9 




Middle 


5 


24 or 48 






Thin 


19 


9 


5 ) 


Strong 


6 


38 






Middle 


23 


7 




?? 


7 


33 






Strong 


26 


i 


I 


») 


8 


29 


2 


- 


Thin 


19 






Thin 

51 


5 
6 


24 
20 






Middle 
Strong 


23 
26 






Middle 


/ 


25 






55 


30 






Strong 


8 


22 




/ 


Thin 


26 


r^ 


1 - 


5» 


^ 


20 


*h 




55 


27 


CO 




55 


9 


19 


I 


Middle 


30 


5 




5) 


10 


17 




i 


Strong 


33 


-»J 




5) 


11 


16 




i 


Thin 


36 


«+H 






12 


14 


3 


I 


Middle 


42 


r^ 


" 


Thin 


7 


25 




Strong 


44 


.£ 






8 


22 




t 


Thin 


45 


to 




Middle 


9 


19 


3i 


i 


Middle 


49 


.5 




5) 


9^ 


18 




Strong 


52 


"p 


1 - 


Strong 


10 


17 




r 


Thin 


48 


5 




)) 


11 


16 


4 


-: 


Middle 


57 


— 




55 


12 


14 




i 


Strong 


61 








14 


12 




i 


Thin 


73 






5) 


15 


11 


5 


Strong 


84 





manufactured, so that, when ordering pipes, the strength of 
pipe can be given when the weight is stated in the specifica- 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 



21 



tion. Column a shows the internal diameter in inches ; b 
is the trade term indicating the strength of the pipe ; c the 
weight in pounds per yard ; D the average length in yards. 

The plumber usually carries his tools in a bag made of 
carpet, with a smaller one for his wiping cloths, and some- 
times another for his small tools. . On country jobs a large 
box or chest is generally used, as a bag will not nearly hold 
them all. 




Figr. 58. — Plumber's Tool-chest. 



The tools of a plumber are heavy, and a chest to hold them 
should be very strong. A chest to hold all that are used by 
plumbers would be very large, but a great many — such as 
long dummies, large ladles, pots, etc. — are not of sufficient 
value to be kept in a box. A plumber's ordinary kit of tools 
would go in a chest 2 ft. 6 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. 
2 in. deep (all inside dimensions). If a hot-water engineer's 
tools, such as stocks and dies, etc., are included, then the 



29 



PEAGTICAL PLUMBERS 7 WORK. 



box must be increased in size, or, better still, a separate one 
used. One reason for making the box strong is that, in 
addition to the weight of tools, plumbers do not always have 
proper lock-ups provided when working in new buildings, 
and their tool chests are convenient for holding a few 
articles such as cocks and valves, bar solder, and similar 
material. 

The plumber's tool-box is made of yellow pine, | in. 
thick when planed on both sides, with dovetailed angles, 




\\\\\\\^^V^\V\\^^^ 



Fi£\ 51. — Side Section of Plumber's 
Tool-chest. 



Fig\ 55. — End Section of 
Plumber's Tool-chest. 

plinth, and lid mouldings. The lid is clamped at the ends 
across the grain, and for the hinges box garnets are much 
better than ordinary butts. These box garnets are 
shown at f (Fig. 53). For fastening the lid, a staple and 
eyes, shown at G and h respectively, and a padlock are pre- 
ferable to an ordinary box lock. The fastenings should be 
screwed on so that they cannot be removed by taking out 
the screws from the outside. For carrying the box, wood 
cleats, and loops or rings made of rope — the ends being 
spliced together — are very suitable, and better than small 
iron handles on plates. These are shown at J, in Figs. 53 and 
54. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections lengthways and crossways. 



MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 23 

A, B, and c, in Figs. 53 and 54, and a in Fig. 55, show a tray 
4 in. deep made of f-in. deal, and having dovetailed angles ; 
it is provided with divisions, and slides on deal fillets screwed 
on to the box ends. The division a is for small tools, such as 
pliers, small turnpins, gouges, hand chisels, etc. ; b for 
wiping-cloths, and c for shave-hooks, drawing-knife, rule, 
and similar tools. The heads of shave-hooks should be rolled 
up in " felts " when being packed for carriage. The tray can 
be lifted out of the chest on to the bench during working 
hours, and the tools replaced from time to time after being 
used. This will obviate the cloths being made dirty or the 
shave-hooks blunted by being knocked about on the bench.. 

The lower part of the chest is divided by a partition into 
two portions (d and e, Fig. 55). One side is for boxwood and 
other tools used for lead-laying ; the other is for hammers, 
long chisels, steel points, screw wrenches, spanners, and 
other metal tools. The lead-plane and saw should be placed 
in the former. The carpet tool-bag and plumber's overalls, 
when not wanted, can be packed on the front of the tray at 
k. The bottom of the box should have the grain of the wood 
running from back to front, and outside two fillets should 
be screwed on, with the grain running lengthways, These 
keep the chest clear of the floor, and also answer as runners 
when the chest is being dragged along, thus preventing the 
end plinth piece being forced off. The inside of the chest 
is left quite plain, but the outside should have three coats 
of oil paint, the finishing coat to be lead colour. As tool- 
chests are sometimes miscarried, it is an advantage to have 
the name and address of the owner, or the firm he works for, 
painted on the front, where it will be less likely to wear off 
than if painted on the lid. 

A plumber's tool-bag, already referred to on p. 21, is 
usually made of good Brussels or other strong carpet, and 
it should have a lining of thin leather or strong canvas. 
Brussels carpet is about 27 in. wide, and a piece about 
lj yd. long is the quantity required for an ordinary sized 
bag. The lining should be cut to the size required, so as to 
avoid a seam at the bottom, and should be closely sewn up 
the sides. The carpet should then be cut to suit the lining, 
allowance being made for seams and for about 2^ in. to turn 
down at the top inside the leather ; it should then be closely 



24 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

sewn, wrong side out, with strong carpet thread, after which 
it should be turned, the leather lining put inside, and the 
%\ in. allowed at the top of the carpet turned down and 
closely sew T n all round inside the leather. Holes should 
then be cut near the top, and eyelets, consisting of short 
pieces of compo. pipe, tafted to the carpet inside and out ; 
a piece of sash cord is threaded through these eyelets for 
carrying the bag. In place of eyelets, short pieces of 
leather strap may be riveted to the top of the bag, with 
brass rings in them to pass the cord through. 



CHAPTER II. 

SOLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT. 

Plumber's solder, wiping solder, also sometimes called 
" metal," for use with the ladle and the soldering cloth, 
is made up by melting together pure lead and block tin in 
the proportion of 2 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of tin. Plumber's fine 
solder is made of about equal parts of those two metals. 
Strip solder — used with the copper bit — is made in the pro- 
portion of 2 lb. of tin to fully 3 lb. of lead. Gasfitter's solder 
may be made in the proportion of 8 lb. of tin to 9 lb. of 
lead; tinman's copper bit solder is 1 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of 
tin ; pewterer's blowpipe solder is 1 lb. of lead, 1 lb. of tin, 
and 2 lb. of bismuth. The proportion of lead and tin may 
vary within certain limits without apparent effect on the 
solder. 

Good plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, should 
have a clean grey appearance, and not be dirty-looking ; 
the ends of the bar should be bright, and show several tin 
spots mottled over their surfaces. In use, the solder should 
work smooth like butter, and not granular like wet sand. 
The tin should not separate from the lead, cooling in tears 
on the lower part of the joints. An ordinary test for the 
quality of solder is to melt it and then pour on to a cold but 
dry stone a quantity about the size of a five-shilling coin, 
and take note of the colour and also the number and sizes 
of the spots that appear ; but the only reliable test is to 
make a joint and note the ease with which it can be worked 
or used. The blowpipe solder used for making joints in 
composition pipe should melt at a low temperature, or the 
pipe itself would be melted. For making blown joints 
on lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips is gener- 
ally used. This is the kind used also for soldering zinc. 
Some plumbers prefer solder finer, others coarser than the 
usual average which is given above. 

The method of making solder as practised in the work- 
shop is as follows : A 14-in. iron solder pot (Fig. 33) is sua* 



26 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WOBK. 

pended over a coke fire, to which enough broken coke is 
added to bank up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it is rather more 
than half full. Preference is given to pig-lead over 
sheet, and to new cuttings over pipe, because the 
lead rolled into sheets is generally purer than that used 
for pipe. Great care must be exercised to exclude compo. 
pipe, which often contains admixtures. Good composi- 
tion tube is made nearly all of tin, or an alloy of tin and 
lead in which the former metal is in excess. But as much 
composition tube is made of old metals which contain lead, 
tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it would be inadvisable to 
put such material in the plumber's solder-pot. The effect 
would be to raise the melting point of the solder, and in 
applying it to the joint to be soldered it would probably par- 
tially melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do not 
alloy perfectly, but partake more of the nature of a mixture 
in which the constituents partially separate when making 
the joints ; some, especially zinc, show as small bright lumps 
on the surface. Joints made with such solder, which 
usually is called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and they 
usually leak when on water service pipes. The appearance 
of such joints is a dirty grey, instead of bright and clean as 
when good solder is used. From this it is clear that in 
making solder great care must be taken to exclude zinc from 
the pot. Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well ; lead will 
unite with only 1*6 per cent, of zinc, and above that propor- 
tion the metals are only mixed when melted, and on cooling 
partially separate. 

Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, about \ lb. 
of roll sulphur, broken into pieces about the size of hazel 
nuts, is added, and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the 
sulphur unites with zinc and other impurities. The result- 
ant sulphides are skimmed off in the form of a cake, more 
sulphur being added so long as sulphides continue to form. 
Care must be taken not to let the sulphur fumes into the 
shop. The head of the ladle, in the intervals of stirring, is 
laid on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. When 
sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful of black resin is 
thrown into the pot, and the lead stirred. When the resin 
has burned, the lead is again skimmed, and a piece of 



SOLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT 



27 



Russian tallow about the size of a hen's egg is put into the 
pot, the lead being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the ladleful, a 
larger amount of lead being thus exposed to the action of 
the cleansing material. 

Best block tin is now added in the required proportion, 
and after the molten mass has been w^ell stirred a little is 
run on to the hearthstone to test its fineness. If it appears 
too coarse more tin is added ; if too fine, more sheet-lead. 
Finally, a little resin and tallow having been added, the 
solder is skimmed and is then ready for use or for pouring 
into moulds. When plumber's solder is heated in an open 



V 



\ZZ7 



Fig-. 56.— Side View of In<?ct. 



Fig\ 57. — End View of Ingot. 




Fig. 5S.— Top Side of Cast of Fie 

Solder. 



, 59.— Bottom Side of Cast of 
Solder. 



pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with oxygen, 
and on heating to redness, the combination takes place 
more readily. The tin melts at a lower temperature than 
lead, and its specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
and so the solder becomes " poorer " when too highly 
heated, owing to the tin's oxidation. If the dross is melted 
with a flux, or with powdered charcoal, which will combine 
with the oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
but it is sometimes necessary to add a little more tin. 

Solder prepared as above described is run into small 
ingots of the shape shown by Fig. 56, a side elevation, and 
Fig. 57, an end elevation. The solder made in large quan- 
tities is generally run into a mould which produces a cast 
of solder resembling in miniature the " sow and pigs " of the 



28 PRACTICAL PLVMBEtiS' WOBK> 

ironworker. This mould is shown by Fig. 58, a view of the 
upper side, and Fig. 59 of the under side. Fine solder, used 
with the copper bit for tinning brass, iron, etc., sometimes 
known as " half-and-half," because it is made of equal parts, 
by weight, of lead and tin, is cast into strips triangular in 
section. The mould used for this purpose is shown in plan 
in Fig. 60, and in cross^-section in Fig. 61. Special care must 
be taken that everything put into a pot or ladle containing 
molten metal is perfectly dry. Anything wet introduced 
into the molten metal is sure to cause an explosion. The 
whole contents of the pot may be blown out to the danger 
of all within range. 

Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. A pot of 
solder after it has been red-hot has always a quantity of 




Fig. 60.— Plan of Mould for Fip\ Gl.— Section of Mould 

Strip Solder. for Strip Solder. 

" dross " or dirt collected on the top. This is principally 
oxide of tin and oxide of lead, the tin and lead having 
united with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form oxides 
of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 per cent, heavier 
than tin, the tendency is for the tin in the molten mixture 
to form the upper layer of the solder — the part most 
exposed to the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 
becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin burned than 
lead. Hence the solder becomes too coarse, and more tin 
must be added. Zinc is the greatest trouble to the solder 
pot. Great care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
out. It may get into the solder from a piece of compo. pipe 
having been put into the pot by mistake for lead ; but more 
commonly brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is 
the source of the zinc that " poisons " the pot, into which 
brass filings find their way whilst brass is being prepared for 
tinning. If the filing is done at the same bench as the 
wiping, splashes of metal may fall on the filings, which will 
adhere, and thus get into the pot. Solder that is poisoned 
by arsenic or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 



8 OLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT 29 

clean ; but zinc can be extracted by stirring in powdered 
sulphur when the solder is in a semi-molten condition, and 
then melting the whole, when the combined sulphur and 
zinc will rise to the surface, and can be taken off in the 
form of a cake, the solder being left in good condition for 
use. 

The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping solder is 
tallow, generally in the form of a candle. No other fluxes 
answer this purpose so well, as they all spoil the wiping 
cloths, but different kinds of fluxes are required for different 
kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow candle is rubbed 
over the parts. This is called touching, and is often prac- 
tised in making copperbit joints ; though for this latter pur- 
pose many plumbers prefer to use black resin. Spirit of 
salts is employed as a flux for use when soldering, the 
" raw " spirit — which is a powerful poison — being used for 
zinc or galvanised iron, and the " killed " spirit for other 
metals, such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, etc. 

After tinning brass with fine solder, the copper bit should 
be wiped quite clean, as the copper, uniting with some of 
the zinc in the brass, may affect the wiping solder. Some 
plumbers tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
pouring the solder on to it. This is bad practice, as the 
surplus solder, and any zinc with which it may have com- 
bined, fall into the pot. In cleaning solder, the sulphur 
must be used with more care than when cleaning lead, or 
the plumber will find himself burning out the tin as well 
as the zinc. 

The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers for tinning 
iron is to file it bright and then coat the part with killed 
spirits or chloride of zinc, also called spirit of salts, in 
which zinc is dissolved, and then dip it into molten 
plumber's solder. Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the 
flux, or a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, and then 
soldered joints made, they have been found to come apart 
after a few years, the pipe ends, when pulled from the 
solder, being found to be rusty. Although more difficult to 
accomplish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, and 
then plunged into molten solder, from the surface of which 
all dross has been skimmed, and afterwards soldered 



30 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



together, have been known to last a considerable time. 
When tinning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
must not be overheated, or failure will result. 



y^/'/v < vr gzz3gggsss \\sssssssss ss: 

Fig. 62— Plain Seam 
Soldered Joint. 



Fig. 63— Soldered Dot- 
on Sheet Lead. 



Fig. 64.— 

Blown, or 

Copper-bit 

Joint. 



Fig. 65.— 
Section of 
Copper-bit 



'op 
J( 



roint. 




Fig. 65.— Wiped Pipe Joint. 



•„;„„*ffimr* 



)} /! , J , , J J J J J J J > J J J S J£gtjggV^\\\\\<.\4 



Fig. 67.— Section of Wiped 
Pipe Joint. 




I Fig. 68.— Wiped 
Branch Joint. 



Fig. 69.— Section 

of Wiped 
Branch Joint. 



Fig. 70.— Wiped 
Flange Joint. 




Fig. 71.— Section of Wiped 
Flange Joint. 



Some of those soldered joints most generally used in 
plumber's work are illustrated by Figs. 62 to 71, shown 
above. 



31 



CHAPTER III. 

SHEET LEAD WORKING. 

The first example to be discussed is the covering of wooden 
stairs with sheet lead. Each tread should have a separate 
piece, and in cutting out the lead for the straight tread 
add sufficient to the measurement to cover the nosing, and 
to lap on the riser below about an inch, and to stand against 
the riser up to the moulding beneath the next tread. The 
winding stairs should be set out full size in plan, the treads 
being shown and also the wall on one side and string or 
newel on the other. This will give the treads, to which 
allowances should be added as for the straight steps. If 
the setting out of the plan is a matter of difficulty, cut 
brown-paper patterns ; one would do for all the straights, 
if of the same size, and one or more for the winders. 
Covering the risers with lead is a waste of both time and 
material. 

The copper nailing is usually done at the ends, about 
1 in. from the edge of the lead, with a single row at the 
back and a double or treble row where the feet rest on 
or near the nosings. The laps on to the riser below each 
step can also be nailed, but sometimes sheet-copper tacks, 
the same as for lead flashings on roofs, are used instead. 
The nails on the nosings should not be less than 1^ in. 
apart, or the wood may split. 

Nailing, although usually employed, is not entirely 
satisfactory, and it is much better to countersink the 
woodwork, dress the lead into the sinkings, and screw 
in brass plates about i in. to - x \ in. thick and 1^ in. to 2 in. 
wide, these being fixed flush about 9 in. or 10 in. apart, 
and about 1 in. back from the nosing. When the lead re- 
quires re-dressing or renewing, the plates can be easily 
taken off and refixed. A continuous brass angle-piece 
may be screwed in the angle formed by the tread with 
the riser. Felt or other material should not be placed 
under the lead. 



3l> 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The bossing up of a lead try or safe (Fig. 72) will now 
be described. A tray of this kind should always be fixed 
under a valve closet, so that if the closet is out of order, 
or if water is slopped over the side of the basin, the floor 




Fig. 72.— Lead Tray or Safe. 

and ceiling beneath will be protected. When a tray 'with 
discharge pipe is provided, the water will be carried outside 
the house, and no damage will result. A tray 3 ft, 6 in. by 
2 ft. 6 in. will be sufficient for any ordinary closet, and 
this size need not be exceeded generally. To make the 
lead tray a piece of sheet lead 4 ft. long and 3 ft. wide 
should be cut out and squared up. It should be marked 
off 3 in. on all sides, and lines drawn from A a to b b, and 



o 



or 



>T 







Fig 



7-L — Corner of 
Lead Tray. 



Fig. 73. — Pattern for Lead Tray. 



from c c to d d, as shown in Fig. 73, the margin thus 
marked being the sides, which are 3 in. high. Place a 
piece of quartering on the lines, and turn up the sides at 
right angles to the bottom. The corners will now appear 
as in Fig. 74. All bumps and buckles should now be 



SHEET LEAD WORKIXQ. 



33 



beaten out with a wooden dresser, and the lead all round 
the underneath edge of the tray should be knocked up to 
help to stiffen it whilst the corners are being bossed up. 
To knock up the corners, lay the tray on its end against 
the bench, with the underneath portion facing the worker. 
Take the bossing-mallet (Fig. 25, p. 18) in the right hand, 
and hold the dummy (Fig. 8, p. 18) in the left, underneath 
the corner ; then with the mallet drive the lead gradually 
into the corner, taking care not to let it buckle. Great 




Fig\ 75. — Lead Bossing. 



care is required in this part of the process, novices being 
apt to split the lead, or make a hole in the corner. After 
it is dressed into the required shape, see if the corner is 
at right angles with the bottom. A small piece of surplus 
lead will be found at the corner, and this should be cut 
off level with the sides. Serve all corners the same ; then 
when well dressed and finished, the tray will have the ap- 
pearance of Fig. 72. 

The general procedure in bossing up internal and ex- 
ternal corners in sheet-lead is to mark the lead where the 



34 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK 



upstand is to be by indenting it with the side of a mallet. 
Set the external corner by working it up (say) 1^ in. high 
with a small mallet and short dummy. An external 
corner, if alone, should be finished by working out the 
surplus lead with a bossing-stick, the fingers of the left 
hand only being held inside. As soon as the corner is 
set, put the stiffening creases into the lead about 2 in. 
from the upstand. For an internal corner the lead should 




Fisr. 76. — Lead Bossing. 



be worked in from the corner of the sheet. When the in- 
ternal corner is near an external corner, the lead should 
be worked from the external corner after it is half up. 
An internal corner should be begun by knocking up a 
bulge from below, and working the bulge into the corner, 
this operation being repeated as often as necessary until 
enough lead is gathered for the required thickness. The 
external corners must be kept well down, and not be al- 
lowed to drag upwards. The lead should always be kept 
rounded until the finish, when the arris may be put where 



SHEET LEAD WOBKIXG. 



35 



the operator likes. The lead should be kept of the same 
thickness all the time. 




Lead Bossing. 



Reproductions of photographs showing different phases 

of the operation of lead bossing are given by Figs. 75 to 78. 

A break is the piece of lead bossed up to fit against an 



36 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



external angle of a wall or other projection. In Fig. 79 
a c show corners, and B is a break. The lead in gutters 
and on flats is usually turned up against walls, etc., to a 
height of 6 in., and to make the lead stand against a 
break to that height is usually considered to be a difficult 
task. The lead has to be made to flow by forcing it into 
the angle from the outer edges. A skilled plumber has 
no difficulty in bossing a break, but skill is necessary to 
make one in which the lead is left of equal thickness 
throughout on completion of the work. The process can 
only be learned by constant and long practice. 

The following is the best method of bossing-up sheet 




Fig. 79.- 



-Diagram illustrat- 
ing Break. 



Fk 



80. — Sheet Lead Bossed up 
to Break. 



lead to a break, the distance between external and internal 
corners being 3 in., and the upstand being 4 in. Dress 
the piece of lead flat, and then strike chalk lines 4 in. 
from each of the sides next to the break, and inside the 
angle formed by the lines measure 3 in. each way to 
represent the break, as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 80. 
Cut off the corner-piece on the thick line at A, and fold up 
the sides on the chain lines. Boss the lead into the in- 
ternal angle b, and at the same time work up the two 
external corners. If carefully done, the lead will be of 
equal thickness in every part when finished. 

When relining a sink, begin by stripping off all the 
old lead, and removing all the old copper tacks. As it 



SHEET LEAD WORKING. 



8! 



is always best to have a new w T aste-pipe, that also should 
be removed. The wooden frame should now be measured, 
and supposing it is 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. 
deep, a piece of lead 4 ft. 4 in. long and 3 ft. 10 in. wide 
will be required, this allowing for a 2-in. turn-down all 
round the top. Square all corners, then mark the height 
1 ft. 2 in. from the edge on all sides ; draw four lines 
through these marks as showm in Fig. 81, namely from A a 
to B b, and from c c to d d. The corner pieces E are to be 
cut out, which w T ill give -the required shape of the lining, 
as shown by Fig. 82. This should be painted with "soil" 
about 3 in. wide, as shown, and when dry, the edges, ^-in. 
wide, are to be shaved with a shave-hook. Care must be 









t 


E 




E 


I 
1 

1 














i 


E 




E 








I 


E 


3 _.. 4 : 4 _.J 


3 j 






Fig. 81. — Patten for Sink Lining. 



Fig. 82.— Lining of Sink. 



taken that no part of the edges remains unshaven, as this 
w r ould prevent the solder from adhering ; and a tallow 
candle should be rubbed over it as a flux. 

A piece of quartering about 18 in. long should be pro- 
cured for use in turning up the sides at right angles to 
the bottom. The lining is now lifted into the frame and 
dressed to the sides, the corners and bottom edges being 
set in with a chase-wedge (Fig. 49, p. 19). A few copper 
tacks can be placed round the shaved edges to hold the 
lead in position, care being taken that their heads are 
bright, and the spare 2 in. of lead at the top can be 
turned outwards over the edges, and nailed with copper 
tacks. The corners c (Fig. 83) should have angle pieces 
left on 15 mitre on the top edge of the wood casing. 



^8 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The sink is now ready for the angular joints to be 
soldered. Heat the metal-pot and plumbing-irons as de- 
scribed in Chapter V. (see pp. 66 and 71), and when the 
metal is melted take a ladleful, and with a splash-stick (Fig. 
84), splash a sufficient quantity up the joint, wa»rm it with 
the soldering iron, and wipe towards the worker, thus 
joining the sides together. The waste-pipe, which should 
be 1| in. in diameter, should now be fixed, and have a trap 
wiped on as shown in Fig. 85. Having cut the requisite 
hole in the lead bottom of sink, open the end of the pipe 
with a turnpin, boss it into the old hollow, and solder in the 
brass grating, soiling and shaving the lead round it and 
neatly wiping the joint. 



Fig. 83.— Corner of Sink. 




Fig. 81. — Splash-stick. 



Fig. 8."). — Waste-pipe wiih 
P-trap. 



If the job were new, and the lining — instead of the 
relining of the sink — had to be undertaken, the work would 
be done in the following way : The hole through the bottom 
should be cut \ in. larger than the waste pipe, and it should 
be dished 1 in. all round | in. deep (a, Fig. 86) for the 
grating washer and plug, or other fitting to be soldered in. 
If the lead bottom is neatly bossed into this hollow, it will 
be easy to wipe a clean edge all round when the waste is 
soldered in. At each angle b (Fig. 86) the top edge of the 
woodwork should be dished in the same manner, but 
| in. deep, and the bottom must be arranged so that all the 
fall is to the waste, that all liquids may drain off. 

Presuming that the sink has to be lined with lead the 



SHEET LEAD WORKING. 



39 



same thickness throughout and in one piece, and that the 
wood case is made from 2-in. stuff, proceed to set out the 
lead preparatory to cutting out, taking for granted that the 
bottom and all angles are square or right angles, and the 
dimensions 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. deep. Take 
a piece of lead 4 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 10 in. as it is cut from the 
sheet, and proceed as already described, or adopt the fol- 
lowing alternative method : Strike a chalk line A (Fig. 
87) as near as possible to one of the longer edges, and 
parallel to this, another line b at a distance of 1 ft. 2 in., 
and from b another parallel line at a distance of 1 ft. 6 in., 
the width of the bottom of sink. On line a mark a point 
1 ft. 2 in. from the left edge ; place a set-square at this 



a ^ 



^>: --i;----;-.:---3£ 



B*1 k 

Fig. 86.— Dished Hole 
and Angle. 





5 


E 








\ 


K 


J A K 

S CM 

^ ■ 


/ 


/ 


T 

i 
i 


K 


H 


f B J 




K 


i 


<— \ 1~, 




— vl-2 0— *-l 


2—, 


CO 


- K ; r 


F 


i gI 


K 


| 


v - i'o ; 




J c 

CM 






i 


Fig. 3 ; 


K 


I ^ 


J 




1 


fc J 


3_ 


— 4'41—i 




^ 





Fig-. 87. — Pattern for Sink 
Lining - . 



point, and strike the line d d. From this line strike a 
parallel line e e 2 ft. distant. Now set the compass points 
1 ft. apart, being the depth of sink, and from f g h j mark 
on the sides the points k, and cut out as shown, leaving 
the angle pieces at corners and the margin pieces at side. 
The ends should be pulled up first, then the sides, the 
margin pieces being dressed square. Keep well within 
chalk lines in setting up, as an allowance should be made 
for thickness of lead. A blow or two with a heavy mallet 
on the underside will belly up the bottom and allow the 
lining to drop in the wood case. When the edges are 
dressed over, the square corner pieces are worked into the 
sinking in the woodwork, and the top of angle can be wiped 



40 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 1 WORK. 



flush. The edges should be nailed with copper tacks in 
straight lines at equal distances apart, trimmed to the face 
of the woodwork, and rasped or planed. The soldering is 
best done after the lining has been fixed. Soil the angles 
3^ in. on either side, forming a quadrant on the bottom, and, 
when dry, shave 1 in. wide ; this will make the soldering 
about If in. wide. If the edges of lead are carefully 
punched into the angles, nailing is not necessary- When 
nails are used, the heads must be punched in below the 
surface of lead. It is advisable to wipe the metal from 
the bottom and bring it over the top edge, the sink being 
laid on its side for that purpose. 




Fig-. 88. — Waste-pipe for Lead Sink. 



The waste-pipe can be arranged as in Fig. 85 (p. 38) 
or as in Fig. 88, in which w p indicates the waste-pipe ; 
t, the trap ; w l, the water line ; and A s, the antisyphonic 
pipe. Many plumbers believe that the waste-pipe should 
not be less than 1^ in. inside diameter for the size of tank 
given, and should have the trap soldered on with a cone 
piece at top to receive a 4-in. grating. These gratings 
can be hinged, so that the underside and trap may be 
cleansed. The water seal of the trap should be kept up 
as near as possible to the bottom of the sink, and should 
be ventilated by a li-in. antisyphonic pipe. 

It may be mentioned that a bell-trap is open to the 



SHEET LEAD WORKING. 



41 



objection that when putting water down a sink, and finding 
it does not flow away quickly underneath the bell, a person 
will lift the loose bell grating, and this, of course, makes 
the trap insanitary, in fact, does away with the trap, and 
allows the foul air to come through the open waste-pipe. 
The bell is also liable to get knocked off the grating. 

When the lead lining of a sink is to be bossed up in- 
stead of being soldered together, the sink may be of the 
section shown at A (Fig. 89). This is the best form for a 




Fig. 89. — Section and Pattern of Lead Sink. 



sink where hot water is laid on, the sides and ends sloping 
as in an ordinary wooden washing tray. The angles are 
occupied by hollowed fillets, and the lead is then bossed 
to fit. By this means, the lead is not fixed rigidly, and 
is allowed to expand. When the lining is to be soldered, 
the lead (10 lb.) is cut out in one piece as at b (Fig. 89). 
For a sink 2 ft. 3 in by 1 ft. 9 in. by 1 ft. deep, the lead at 
the bottom would measure 1 ft. 11 in. by 1 ft. 5 in. at each 
of the two sides, 2 ft. 1 in. by 1 ft. Ih in. (average) ; and at 
each of the two ends, 1 ft. 7 in. by 1 ft. lj in. (average). 



42 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Allowance must be made for the angles on the top edge. 
The total amount of lead would be about 11 J square feet, 
weighing (say) 3 qr. 27 lb. There would be a 4 ft. 10 in. 
run of soldering, weighing a further 6 lb. 

Before instructions are given on lining tanks with lead, 
it must be said that there are objections to this being done ; 
soft water, it is well known, dissolves the lead, and the 
habitual use of water containing more than ^ gr. of lead 
per gallon is dangerous. Whilst one authority states that 
hard water, if free from organic matter, will not be affected 
by the lead, another authority says that potable water 
should never be kept in lead-lined cisterns. As a matter 
of practice, lead-lined cisterns should not be used ; for 
though it may be true that water of a certain degree of 
hardness and free from organic matter is unaffected by 
lead, the foreign matters held in solution by water are 
not always constant. Drought and an abundant rainfall, 
as w T ell as other causes, affect the quality of water, and 
where the health of the community is concerned every 
precaution should be taken to keep the potable water 
pure. Water containing less than 6 gr. of mineral sub- 
stances per gallon is reckoned as soft water. All above 
that is called hard water ; and to show w T hat a great varia- 
tion there is in the hardness of water it may be stated that 
water in the neighbourhood of London is said to contain 
about 18 gr. of chalk in each gallon. If lead-lined cisterns 
must be used, they should be regularly cleaned out. For 
the sides, the weight of the lead should not be less than 
6 lb. per foot, and then for the bottom it would be an 
advantage to use 7-lb. lead. Iron bolts that are used as 
ties to strengthen the cistern should be encased in lead 
pipe, the ends of which can be soldered to the sides of the 
cistern. Wood cisterns lined with zinc are sometimes 
used, but it is questionable whether there is anything be- 
yond their cheapness to recommend them. 

Limewhiting lead, iron, or galvanised iron cisterns has 
been found to arrest the corrosive action of some kinds 
of water. The limewhite should be made from freshly- 
slaked lime and used at once, and size, oil, or other mix- 
ture is not required with it. The wash must be allowed 
to dry before filling the cistern with water, and renewed 
whenever the cistern is cleaned out. 



SHEET LEAD WORKING. 43 

A suggestion as to the best method of constructing a 
lead-lined cistern is given in Fig. 90, which shows a framed 
and dovetailed cistern, 7 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep, to 
be lined with 6-lb. lead. The illustration gives an isometric 
view showing the cistern ready for lining. The sides are 
formed of three boards jointed, ploughed, and cross- 
tongued. For the purpose of breaking joint, the ends have 
to be formed of two boards and two half -boards as shown. 
For a cistern of this length one or two top ties should be 
dovetailed to the sides after lining. Often metal tie-rods 
are employed, and of these wrought-iron is the cheapest, 




Cistern for Lead-lining. 



but copper better resists any corrosive action or rusting. 
Holes should be bored through the cistern on opposite 
sides where the rods are to be fixed, and the rods passed 
through the holes and also through lead pipes fixed be- 
tween them. The ends of the pipes are wiped to the lead 
linings, and the bolts are to have a head on one end and a 
screwed nut on the other for tightening them. The heads 
and nuts respectively should have wrought-iron plates 
between them and the wood casing, to strengthen the 
latter and distribute the strain over a larger area. 

In lining a wooden tank with lead, the dimensions of 
the tank being 20 ft. by 9 ft. by 4 ft. deep, the bottom 
should be divided in its length into three parts. This 



44 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

would give two seams across the bottom, and where the 
seams come the woodwork should be dished for the solder- 
ing to be wiped flush. The lead for each end of the tank 
can be in one piece, and if plenty of help is available, 
the sides could also be each in one piece. But if the tank 
is in* a cramped position w T here the extra hands cannot 
exert their full strength, each of the sides can be lined 
with two pieces, dishings being made in the woodwork for 
flush seams to be w^iped upright in the centre of their 
length. For rainwater, the sides and ends should be of 
7-lb. lead, and the bottom of 8-lb. lead ; but if economy 
must be studied, 6-lb. lead sides and ends, and 7-lb. lead 
bottom, would do. To line the tank, first put in the sides, 
then the ends, and the bottom last of all. After the lead 
is in position, the upright flush seams and the upright 
angles should be soldered, then the bottom flush seams, 
and lastly the bottom angles. The laps must be arranged 
so that the solder will not run through when wiping. Up- 
right stiffening pieces wiped to the sides are better than 
soldered dots ; but if it is found necessary to fix stay rods to 
keep the wooden sides from bulging outwards, these rods 
would also help to support the lead and prevent it from 
bagging inwards as the tank is emptied of water. 

Plumbers do not agree as to the amount of solder they 
use when wiping angles, but about l\ lb. to lj lb. of solder 
is a fair average per foot run for a cistern lined with 6-lb. 
lead. A thoroughly good lead-burner, who is paid about 
half as much again as an ordinary plumber, would line and 
burn a large cistern in about the same time as if it were 
soldered. Under ordinary conditions either method would 
do, but where the water has a solvent action lead burning 
is better than soldering. Pure lead resists the action of 
water more than ordinary lead, and can be burned much 
better. With soldered angles a voltaic action takes place 
between the metals lead and tin ; with burned seams 
there is only one metal, and consequently no voltaic action. 

To prepare a slate cistern for lining with lead, the 
angles that are to be wiped should be lined with wood. 
Boards 6 in. to 8 in. wide and 1 in. thick should have one 
face planed down to a feather-edge, the feathering ex- 
tending half-way across the board to leave 3 in. or 4 in. 
level on the top, so that the solder will not run away from 



SHEET LEAD WORKING. 45 

the angle when wiping. The wood linings should be care- 
fully fitted, the flat side being downwards and the feather- 
ing towards the inner parts of the cistern, and mitred at 
the corners so that they will mutually keep each other in 
position at the bottom, and they should be skew-nailed 
to each other on the tops of the upright angles. If the 
means of access to the cistern are awkward, the sides had 
better be in four pieces, necessitating four upright angles 
being wiped. After lining the angles with wood, the 
cistern can be lined with lead in the ordinary manner. 

Copper with tinned face is far preferable to lead for 
lining sinks in which hot water is used. The copper lining 
should be made the exact depth of the wood casing, but 
the length and width about \ in. smaller, so that it is free 
to expand without buckling in the bottom. The best 
weight for the bottom is 3 lb. to 3^ lb., and for the sides 
2\ lb. to 3 lb. per superficial square foot. 

In lining a sink with pewter, the sheet pewter should 
be cut out to such a shape that as little soldering as pos- 
sible has to be done. In this case, the corners can be 
cut out, the metal folded to fit the case, the soldering done 
on the outside and cleaned off before placing in position ; 
the soldering is done by means of a copperbit or a blow- 
pipe. The solder is composed, by weight, of 1 lead, 1 tin, 
and 2 bismuth, and the flux is Gallipoli or olive oil. 
Soldering trials should be made on pieces of spare pewter 
before attempting that on the sink. 



46 



CHAPTER IV. 



PIPE BENDING. 



In bending a lead soil pipe, where the pipe overlaps in 
the throat (see Fig. 91), it will be seen that there is a 
surplus of lead to be disposed of, and where the parts do 
not meet, at the heel, there is a deficiency to be provided 
for. When the bend is completed, the lead should be of 
equal thickness in all parts, and this can only be attained 
by working the surplus lead from the throat to supply the 
deficiency at the heel. 

The tools necessary are a boxwood mandrel (Fig. 92), 
which should be about 15 in. long ; a boxwood bending 




Fig. 91. — Diagram showing Bending 
of Lead Pipes. 



Fig. 92. — Boxwood 
Mandrel. 



dresser ; a soft-wood dresser ; a boxwood mallet with cane 
handle ; a dummy A, Fig. 93, with a cane handle ; dummies 
b and c, Fig. 93, cast on ^-in. steam barrel, with heads at 
different angles to the handles ; and lead flappers as Fig. 
94, but of different widths. A flapper is made from a strip 
of sheet lead by folding up a part of it to form a handle. 

The cane dummy is made by covering 3 in. of the end 
of the cane with sheet lead, or lead pipe, fastening the 
lead securely to the cane with tacks, shaving the lead 
very carefully all over, and wiping on a bulb of solder of 
the shape required. 

The long dummies are made by tinning about 2 in. of 
the iron barrel at one end, making an impression of the 



PIPE BENDING. 47 

head of the cane dummy in a gallipot of sand, holding the 
tinned end of the barrel in the centre of the impression 
so made, and pouring wiping solder into the mould. The 
solder will unite with the tinning on the barrel, and the 
head will be secure. The heads should be trimmed, the 
sharp corners being well rounded off. It is better to bend 
the barrel to the required angle before tinning it. File 
the iron barrel bright where it is to be tinned, and paste 
a piece of paper round the edge where the tinning is not 
required, moisten with killed spirits of salts (muriatic acid 
saturated with zinc), and apply fine solder with the copper 
bit. After tinning, thoroughly wash the end of the barrel 
in clean water, to remove all traces of the acid. 

Put the lead pipe to be bent (say 4 ft. of 4-in.) on to the 




Fig, 93.-— Dummies, 

bench, first taking care that the bench is perfectly clean 
and clear of all grit, nail-heads, or anything that would 
mark the pipe. Dress it straight, drive the mandrel 
through so as to ensure a perfectly regular bore and to 
take out any indentations, and dress the pipe on to the 
mandrel during its passage by beating it with the lead 
flappers. A little linseed oil applied to the inner surface 
of the pipe will render the passage of the mandrel easier. 
Having dressed the pipe straight, mark where it is to be 
bent by striking it smartly with the bending dresser. 
One man must now, with a mandrel or a dresser, bear 
down on the place marked, w T hilst the other man lifts up 
the pipe at one end. This serves to bend the soft 
pipe, the pressure of the mandrel deciding at what point. 
It is not wise to bend the pipe too much at one operation 
(Fig. 95 suggests the successive stages of pipe bending). 



48 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Little and often is much the safer plan until experience 
has taught a man how much of a " pull-up " he can manage. 
When the bend appears as in Fig. 96, strike the pipe 
with the bending dresser at the places marked x x. This 
will make the contraction more gradual, and render it easier 
to dummy out without buckling. For working with the 
dummy, the pipe is held in the position shown in Fig. 96, 
the end being placed against a strip of wood about 1 ft. 
long, 2 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, which is nailed on the 
end of the bench. Upon the handle of the dummy being 
struck smartly on the strip of wood, its head will strike 
upwards against the inside of the pipe. By striking re- 
peatedly at the inside of the indentations the original bore 
of the pipe is restored. This having been done, lay the 
pipe first on one side, then on the other, and drive back 






Fig. 94. -Sheet-lead 
Flapper. 



L 



Fig. 93. — Successive Stages of Pipe-bending. 



the cheeks to the heel with the dresser. Now work up the 
sides with the dummy, and the pipe will be ready for 
another " pull up. ?; In case of doubt as to the thickness of 
any part, the bend should be tapped lightly with the mal- 
let, when the sounds will indicate where it is too thick or 
too thin. Where it is too thick it must be worked up with 
the dummy, which stretches the lead and of course reduces 
its substance, and the bulge thus raised is worked towards 
a place that is too thin. The bend should be made of 
larger bore than the pipe, and then dressed into the exact 
size with lead flappers. 

Except for single bends, where all parts can be easily 
reached, the beginner will find it best to finish off by put- 
ting a bobbin through. A bobbin is made of boxwood of 
the form shown at A (Fig. 97). A sash-line passes through 
a hole in the centre. The line also passes through a weight 
b (Fig. 97), to which it is fastened. The bobbin being 



Pipe bending. 



49 



inserted, the weight is drawn backward and forward by the 
line passing through the pipe. Each time the weight is 
pulled forward it strikes the bobbin and is drawn back 
again for another blow. 

Fig. 98 shows a section through a weight, which is com- 
posed of solder cast in a mould made by dressing a piece 
of 3-in. pipe to the required shape, cutting it through 
lengthwise, soiling the inside, putting in a wood core, and 
binding the two halves together tightly. When the weight 
has been cast, the mould comes off in two halves, and the 
core is taken out with a gimlet. A brass disc is soldered 




Fig. 98.— 
Saction of Weight. 



on to the end that strikes against the bobbin, and a brass 
trap screw, with a hole through the plug, is soldered into 
the other end. Half the line is passed through the weight, 
a knot is put into the middle, the knot is drawn into the 
recess under the trap screw, the line is passed through 
the plug of the screw, which is then screwed down on the 
knot, and the weight is fastened on to the line. As the 
bobbin passes through, the pipe is dressed on in the same 
way as it was dressed on the mandrel. In Fig. 98 the 
references to the lettering are as follows : — A, brass trap 
screw ; b, recess in which knot is held ; c, body of weight, 
made of wiping solder ; d, brass disc for striking against 
bobbin. 



50 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK 

The bobbins may also be driven through the pipe by 
means of short pieces of wood a little smaller than the 
bobbins, and long wood rods. Or the bobbins may be 
driven through by allowing a lead ball to fall upon them. 
Another method is to drag them through by means of a 
cord knotted at one end, and passed through a hole made in 
the centre of the bobbin. High-class plumbers rarely use 
these appliances, as by their use the heel, or outside, of the 
bend is made thinner than the other parts. 

If lead pipe is very hard, it can be softened by burn- 
ing a few wood shavings inside the bend, the throat being 
uppermost. A better and cleaner method is to chalk the 
bend well, and then pour on a small quantity of molten 
lead, which, when set, can be easily tipped off with the 
finger. The dummying should be quickly done while the 
pipe is hot. Some plumbers prefer to use a blowlamp, as 



a 






Fig. 99. — Ball and Follower, and their Use. 

the heat can then be directed more definitely to the place 
where it is wanted. The lead pipe should be made just 
hot enough to make a fizzing noise when a drop or two of 
water is allowed to fall upon it. 

Bending with balls and followers is a method that was 
followed much more some years ago than it is at the 
present day. It is not considered a gQod way by first-class 
plumbers. The piece of pipe to be bent is pulled round a 
little till it dents in the throat ; two or more hard-wood 
balls A (Fig. 99), slightly smaller in diameter than the bore 
of the pipe, are then inserted in the pipe, and driven past 
the bend by means of some short round blocks of wood, 
called followers b (Fig. 99). This takes out the dent caused 
by the bending ; c (Fig. 99) will assist the reader in under- 
standing the process. The pipe is then bent again, and 
the process repeated until the required angle is obtained. 
The objections to this method of bending are those that 



PIPE BENDING. 



51 



apply to the use of ordinary bobbins : the pipe is weakened 
at the heel of the bend, and is liable to be damaged by 
the edges of the followers catching in the angle of the 
bend. However, if the followers are well rounded off, as 




Fig. 104.— Soldered Elbow. 



Fig. 103.— Return Bend. 



shown in Fig. 99, and both them and the balls well greased, 
there is very little fear of that happening. Of course, if 
this method is adopted, a set of balls and followers will be 
wanted for each size pipe that it is required to bend ; the 
most useful sizes for lead pipes are from li in. to 3 in. 



52 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



diameter ; above or below these sizes, balls and followers 
are not recommended. 

By winching lead pipe bends it is understood that a 
bobbin with a rope through it (as already described) is 
dragged through the pipe and bends by means of a winch 
fixed on the end of a bench. This is sometimes practised 
instead of using followers and driving-rods to force the 
bobbin through. 

The method just described of bending soil or funnel 
pipes will not be suitable for small bore pipe such as is 
used for water service, overflows, etc. Strong lead service 
pipe, up to 1 in., can be easily bent by pulling round, if 
the bend is not made too sharp, and the plumber should 




Fig. 105.— Hand-made Trap. 



Fig. 106.— P-trap. 



always make his bends as easy as possible. When a sharp 
bend has to be made in a long piece of pipe, it is best to 
cut the pipe near to the place at which the bend is to be 
made ; then, when pulling round, if the throat contracts, 
it can be worked out to its proper size by means of what 
is called a bolt or tommy. This is made of iron or steel, 
with the ends well rounded and quite smooth, and is illus- 
trated by Fig. 7, p. 18. 

Some plumbers adopt the water or sand method for 
bending small pipes. In the former method the water 
should be poured in hot, and the ends plugged tightly or 
flattened close, and the soldering-iron run over the ends 
to keep the water from bursting out when the pressure 
of bending comes on it. In bending with sand, the sand 
may either be put in hot, or the pipe can be heated in the 



PIPE BENDING. 



53 



place where the bend is required. When rilling with sand, 
one end should be plugged, then the sand rammed in as 
tightly as possible till the pipe is nearly full, and the other 
end then flattened or plugged. Pipes should not be bent 
over anything sharp, but should be " humoured " as much 
as possible. The essential requirement is to keep the 
pipe full size at the bend, otherwise its effectiveness is 
reduced. 

Lead pipe is bent into a variety of shapes, and Figs. 
100 to 103 show four of the chief. An ordinary right angle 
bend is shown by Fig. 100, a lead elbow by Fig. 101, an 
offset by Fig. 102, and a return bend by Fig. 103. The 
elbow shown by Fig. 104 is not an example of bending ; 





Fig. 107.— S-trap. 



Fig. 108.— Anti-D-trap. 



it is made by mitring the ends of the two pieces of pipe 
and then joining them with solder. Traps capable of being 
made by bending lead pipe are shown by Figs. 105 to 108, 
Tig. 105 illustrating the genuine homemade trap ; the in- 
scriptions give sufficient descriptions of the others. 

Sometimes a pipe bend is made out of sheet lead ; 
for example, by the following method, a lead bend can be 
made in halves out of 5-lb. sheet lead, and afterwards 
joined. The lead must be cut to the length, measured out- 
side, of the finished bend, and the width must be equal to 
half the circumference of the pipe. Thus, if the bend is 

to be 4 in. in diameter the lead should be ( J = 

6'28, or say 6| in. wide. The edges must then be made 



54 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

perfectly straight by rasping or by planing, and the pieces 
dressed on a 4-in. mandrel (a piece of 4-in. cast-iron rain- 
water pipe will serve the purpose), the place at which the 
bend is to be made being marked with chalk. One piece 
must be bent to the required angle, in order to form the 
keel or outside of the bend ; this will cause the sides to 
bulge outwards, and the bulge must be corrected by boss- 
ing the sides inwards to the desired extent, which will 
cause a slight thickening. The straight parts or ends 
must be kept to the right curve by frequent dressing on 
the mandrel. The other piece of lead must be bent the 
reverse way in order to form the throat of the bend ; and 
the bulged sides must be worked outwards in order to form 
the other half. 

Unless great care is taken in working the sides of the 
second half, the lead will be so reduced in thickness that 
it will break or tear. To lessen this risk as much as 
possible, the hollow in the throat should be worked out- 
wards, which will cause that part to be slightly thickened. 
After the two halves have been bossed to shape, the edges 
must be trimmed and accurately fitted together, then soiled 
inside and outside for a width of about 2 in., and shaved 
with a gauge-hook for a width of y\in. to \ in., when the 
seam is to be f in. or \ in. wide. The halves must then 
be laid in position on the bench, and the seam made by 
drawing with metal and a plumber's iron. The bend 
should then be turned over and the other seam soldered 
in a similar manner. Before beginning to make the bend 
draw the required shape with chalk on the bench, in order 
that the correct angle may be ensured. When many bends 
have to be made, a wooden or a cast-iron block, on which 
the halves can be worked, should be provided. 



55 



CHAPTER V. 

PIPE JOINTING. 

The two or three commonly employed processes of joint- 
ing lead and composition pipes will be the better under- 
stood when the styles and shapes of the principal joints 
have been illustrated. Figs. 109 to 138 have been prepared 
to show these joints in elevation and section, and the in- 
scription beneath the figures will serve equally as well as 
a lengthy description in the text. Figs. 139 tt) 141 show the 
application of some of these joints. 

Wiping joints, like other skilled arts, can only be 
learned by practice. But although the requisite skill of 
hand cannot be imparted, there are still many points upon 
which practical hints may prove helpful. 

Wiped joints are of two kinds, horizontal or under- 
hand, and upright, and it is commonly thought that the 
easiest way to make a horizontal joint is to roll the soft 
metal into shape. However, it is just as easy for a good 
plumber to make an ordinary underhand joint as it is to 
make a rolled joint. A rolled joint can only be made in a 
straight piece of lead pipe which can be rolled round on 
the bench. An underhand joint can be made on a hori- 
zontal pipe with bends in it, and when fixed in position. 
To make a rolled joint, the ends of the lead pipe are pre- 
pared as for any other method, and then secured to each 
other by means of "splints." These are pieces of thin 
board, or, better still, pieces of straight plasterer's laths, 
split up and pushed into the parts to be joined, so that the 
whole is as rigid as if it were one piece of pipe. After 
preparing the ends, the work is laid on two pieces of 
deal quartering 3 in. or 4 in. square, and about 2 ft. to 3 ft. 
long, laid crossways on the bench, so that the pipe can be 
rolled backwards and forwards on the blocks. If the joint 
is a small one, the plumber can manage by himself, and 
begin by pouring on the metal as for an underhand joint. 
When his heat is about right, he then with one hand holds 



56 



.PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 





Figs. 109 and 110. — Copper Bit Joint. 





Figs. Ill and 112. — Ribbon Joint. 



illl 


i ill H 


!'h 


I'M 

/I III 


I 


1 




Figs. 113 and 114.— Coppsr Bit Figs. 115 and 116.— Flange Joint. 

Overcast Joint. 






Figs. 117 and 118. — Wiped Joint, Figs. 119 and 120.— Overcast Joint. 



PIPE JOINTING. 



57 



the cloth on the top of the solder, and rolls the pipe away 
from him with the other hand. He then lifts off the cloth, 
quickly rolls the pipe towards himself, replaces the cloth 
in position, the wiping hand having the fingers spread open 
to give the joint the proper roundness, and again rolls the 
pipe away from him. This process is repeated two or three 




Figs. 121 and 122.— Block Taffc Joint. Fig?. 123 and 12 k— Block Flange Joint. 



times, until the joint is of the right form and the solder is 
on the point of setting. 

Another way of making a rolled joint is for the plumber 
to use an upright, instead of underhand, cloth, which he 
holds on the near side of the joint, at the same time pour- 
ing solder on to the pipe and cloth whilst his mate slowly 
rolls the pipe towards the front side of the bench. On 
getting to that position, the mate quickly rolls the pipe to 



58 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 




Fig. 128.— Taf fc Joint. Fig. 129.— Taft Joint and Grating to Sink 




Figs. 130 and 131.— Joint of Service Pipe to Cistern. 



PIPE JOINTIS'd. 



59 




Fig. 136. 

Figs. 132 and 133. — Branch Soil-pipe Joint. Figs. 134 and 135.— 
Branch Soil-pipe Joint with Bend. Fig. 136. — Horizontal Branch 
Joint to Distribute Steam Right and Left, 



60 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. 



the back side of the bench, when the plumber again places 
the cloth in position and again pours, the pipe in the 
meantime being slowly rolled by his mate towards the 
wiper. As soon as the solder is at the right heat and in 
a plastic condition, he finishes off as described for the first 
method. For large joints, the pieces of pipe are mounted 
on a mandrel, and tightened up with thin splints forced 




Horizontal Branch Joint in Direction of Current. 



between it and the pipes, the mandrel having the ends laid 
in U-shaped notches cut into wood blocks and having a 
small winch handle for revolving during the time of wiping. 
Where a slow-speed lathe is handy, the mandrel and pipes 
can be mounted as for turning, and the joint made as above 
described. 

Before joint wiping can be begun, a supply of soil or 
smudge must be prepared. This material is best when 



PIPE JOINTING. 



61 



made up in small quantities, as it deteriorates, especially 
in hot weather, by keeping. The ingredients sufficient for 
an ordinary soil pot are a penny packet of lampblack, a 
piece of chalk about the size of a pigeon's egg, and i lb. 



Lead 
Soil-pip^ 



Wiped 
Soldered Joint 




Fig. 139. — Lead Soil-pipe 
Jointed to Stoneware Drain. 




Lead Soil-pipe. 



Wiped Soldered Joint 

Brass or Copper Thimble. 
Caulked Lead. 



Yarn or Lead Tape. 



Fig\ 110. — Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to Cast-iron Bend 



of size, or glue melted and diluted to the consistency of 
size. Some plumbers put in about a teaspoonful of brown 
sugar, but others object to this, as making the soil sticky. 
To make the soil, first put the size and a few tablespoon- 
fuls of water into the pot, and place on the hob or by the 



62 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

side of the fire to melt, but do not allow it to boil or burn. 
Some plumbers use small gluepots, similar to carpenters', 
to prevent the size burning when being heated. Next 
crush and grind the chalk to a very fine powder, and mix 
and re-grind in conjunction with the lampblack. With a 
pallet-knife or similar tool incorporate some of the melted 
size with the mixture, on a flat board or stone, to form a 
thin paste, after which place the whole in the pot, re-warm, 
and thoroughly mix by stirring. A trial of the soil should 
be made on a piece of lead. If, after drying, it peels 
off, a little water should be added ; but if it is easily 
rubbed off, the size is not good or perhaps the lead is 
greasy. In the former case, use stronger size ; in the 
latter, well chalk the lead. When old soil has become too 
thick by reheating, a little porter or stout can be added 
to make it thinner ; but too much should not be used, or 
the soil will be so sticky that the solder will cling to it. 
Beer and sugar give a slightly glossy surface to the soil. 

Some plumbers soil their joints, after they are made, 
with black japan, or thinned Brunswick black. But it is 
doubtful whether the effect is as good as when a " dead " 
black, such as given by ordinary soil, is used. If the soil 
is to be washed off after the soldering is done, use paper- 
hangers' thin paste instead of ordinary soil. 

Instead of setting forth the principles of joint-wiping 
and leaving the application of them to the reader, it will 
be better to describe the process of preparing and wiping 
an " underhand ;; or horizontal joint on two pieces of, say, 
f-in. pipe. 

For practice cut off with a saw two pieces of pipe each 
18 in. long. The saw used by plumbers is commonly 14 in. 
long in the blade, and of the pattern shown in Fig. 40 
(p. 19). Dress the pipes out straight with a soft wood 
dresser. The soft wood dresser is usually made of horn- 
beam, and is of the form shown in Fig. 11 (p. 18). In the 
shops and on jobs which are expected to take a considerable 
time, generally a dresser is made out of a piece of quarter- 
ing, as shown in Fig. 142. It is easily made, is as useful 
as the design sketched in Fig. 11 (p. 18), and does not mark 
the pipe as a hard dresser does. It is also cheaper, as it 
costs nothing but the trouble of making it, the quartering 
being picked up on the job. 



PIPE JOINTING. 



63 



Iron Clip 
and Stays. 




Fi°\ 141. — Water-closet Connections. 



64 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The pipes having been dressed out straight, square the 
ends with the rasp, and prove that they are true by means 
of a square as shown in Fig. 143. Many plumbers are very 
particular, when making joints, to have every pipe-end 
perfectly square before using the turnpin or rasping off the 
arris. The result is seen in the greater neatness of their 
work. The burr should be cleaned out of the end of one 
pipe, and the outer arris rasped off, as shown in section by 
Fig. 144. The other pipe-end should now be opened by 
means of the turnpin, Fig. 44 (p. 19), until the first pipe 
will enter as far as it is rasped off. It will then appear 
as in the section to the right of Fig. 144. Both pipes 
should now be cleaned by wiping them with a clean rag or 



V . P . <3 . 




Fig. 112. —Dresser made from Quartering-. 




Fig. 111.— Lead Pipes Prepared for Jointing". Fig. 113. — Proving 

Squareness of Pipe End. 



glasspaper, and a little whiting or chalk rubbed on to kill 
the grease. 

The pipes are next marked 6 in. from the end by 
means of a gauge (Fig. 145), the scribing points being 
blunted so as not to cut into the lead. The gauge 
is held on th^ pipe with one hand while the pipe 
is revolved with the other. The end of the pipe, 
up to the 6-in. mark, is then soiled — that is, painted 
with soil or smudge, which should have been pre- 
viously warmed. If the soil " peels " off there is too 
much glue or size in it, or the pipe is greasy ; if it " rubs " 
off, it is too weak in size or glue. Try the soil on a piece 
of lead, and add water or size as the case may be. The 
soil is to prevent the solder adhering where it is not 



Pipe jointing. 



G5 



required. When the soil is dry, mark the male pipe (to the 
left of Fig. 144) all round 1} in. from the end, and the 
female pipe 1^ in. from the end, by means of the gauge 
(Fig. 145). 

Next shave, by means of a shave-hook, the parts 
marked. Do not dig the shave-hook too deeply into the 



. i , r 




i 








i 




i 



Fig. H5. — Gauge for Marking Pipes. 

mark so as to gouge out the lead, but, firmly pressing the 
edge of the shave-hook into the mark, draw it towards the 
end of the pipe, leaving a bright surface. Be very care- 
ful to shave the whole of the part marked off, as an un- 
shaved streak will cause the joint to leak, the solder not 
being able to adhere to any part of the lead from which 
the soil has not been removed, for the pipe is soiled in the 
first instance in order to prevent the solder from adhering 




Fig. 146. — Pipes Fixed for Wiping, 



beyond the limits of the joint. Shave the rasped part of 
the male pipe and the inside of the female pipe as far as 
the one enters the other. Smear with tallow the parts 
of the pipes which have been shaved. The tallow acts as 
a flux, and causes the solder to alloy with the surface of the 

E 



66 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

pipe. The solder flows in between the pipe ends and 
greatly strengthens the joint. 

The pipes, being now prepared, must be secured in 
position very rigidly. They can be laid, each piece upon 
two bricks set on edge, or upon two short pieces of quarter- 
ing, and held down on the bench by string, attached to 
holdfasts, as seen at A (Fig. 146), or secured to spikes 
driven into the bench, as illustrated at b. The width of a 
brick (4-J in.) is a convenient distance from the bench to have 
the pipe. If the pipe is nearer, the knuckles get burned with 
the solder, which drops off in getting up a heat. If the 
pipe is higher, the solder splashes as it falls, and burns 
the hands in that way. On the bench directly under the 




Fig. 117. — Underhand Wiping. 

joint put a piece of brown paper 10 in. square and four 
folds thick, or better still, a piece of thin sheet iron, for 
the purpose of catching the solder which falls off the joint 
in the process of making. With a pot of solder at the 
proper temperature near at hand, take a 3i-in. ladle in the 
right hand, and a wiping-cloth 4 in. square in the left hand, 
and begin. Stir up the solder in the pot so as to mix the 
tin, which rises to the top, with the lead, which sinks to 
the bottom ; take a ladleful and pour it on to the pipes 
very slowly and carefully. 

A beginner at wiping should practise forming his joints 
without any reference to wiping them until he can with 
confidence form a joint each time he tries. Then, forming 



PIPE JOINTING. 



67 



the joint quickly, he will wipe it round by keeping the 
cloth at the same curve all the way round and pressing on 
the edges so as to get them " clean " (see Figs. 147 and 148). 
The result will be seen in Fig. 149. 

Years ago plumbers always used the iron (Fig. 23, p. 18) 




Fig. li8.— Wiping Top of Joint. 

when making a joint, however small. In making the joint 
they proceeded in the manner described above, except that 
when the joint was formed they only wiped the under half 
without the iron, and finished the upper half with the iron, 
using it to keep up the heat. 




Fig. H9.— Wiped Joint. 

For plumbers' wiping-cloths, strong cotton bedtick, 
when old and soft, is sometimes used, but the best material 
is " fustian" or " moleskin." A pair of navvy's worn-out 
moleskin trousers will make up a good number of wiping 
cloths. New can be bought at any working man's tailor's, 



63 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

but such cloth has to be boiled and washed to take out the 
"dressing" and make it soft. The "nap," too, has to be 
singed, otherwise the solder clings to it. It may be 
scorched by passing it over a gas flame, or quickly rubbing 
it over a red-hot iron. The cloth requires to be well 
greased before using, but too much must not be used or 
the joints will look dirty when finished. Another objection 
to too much grease is the injury to the hands, the muscles 
of which are contracted in the palms by the steam and heat 
which escape when the fat is at or near boiling point in 
wiping joints. Plumbers make their wiping-cloths them- 
selves according to their individual fancies as to size and 
thickness. 

The sizes of such cloths greatly vary, according to the 
length of the joints and the ideas of the plumber. For an 
upright joint on a 3^-in. pipe the cloth would be 4j in. long 
by 3 in. to 3^ wide, the thickness being 8 to 14 folds, accord- 
ing as the fustian is new or old, and having regard to the 
amount of "dressing" in it. Old is the softest and most 
pliable. For underhand joints a common size is 6 in. wide 
by 8 in. to 9 in. long. Some plumbers have them shorter, 
but young men burn their wrists with such cloths. Some 
men use a large cloth when pouring on the solder, and a 
smaller one, ready warmed, for wiping. The thickness for 
the underhand cloths is about the same as for the upright ; 
but this is a point upon which opinions differ. The above 
size for upright joints will answer for either 3-in., 3i-in., 
or 4-in. pipes ; but for underhand joints the above size can 
be reduced by about 1 to 2 in. in length for the 3-in. joints. 

An upright joint is one of the simplest joints a plumber 
has to make, but it requires not only the skill in manipula- 
tion, which can only be obtained by practice, but also that 
patient attention to detail which is given the most readily 
by the workman who can render a reason for his actions. 

The upright joint about to be described is made on a 
piece of 4-in. soil pipe, though joints of any size, from \ in. 
up to 6 in. or more, can be made by the same method. 
Begin by straightening the pipes and squaring up the 
ends. Then open one end of the pipe with a turnpin, rasp 
off the arrises of both pipes, and see that the bore of each 
pipe is free from burr. The pipes should be soiled for 
about 6 in., leaving a clean sharp edge, which may be 



PIPE JOINTING. 



69 



obtained by carefully wrapping a piece of straight-edged 
paper round the pipe, and allowing the soil to overlap the 
paper ; when the soil is dry, the paper can be removed. 
With a pair of compasses set at 2-in., or with a scribing 
gauge, scribe round the spigot pipe, and with the com- 
passes set at If in. scribe the socket pipe. This will allow 
I in. of one pipe to enter the other, and give a 3i-in. joint, 
which is the proper size for a 4-in. pipe. 

Carefully shave every part of the pipe between the 
scribed lines and the end, using only enough pressure to 
remove a very thin shaving ; if any part of the pipe is left 
unshaved, the solder will not adhere to it ; and if too much 
pressure is used, the pipe will be weakened at the junction 
of the soiling and the shaving. To keep the air from 





Fig. 150. 

Fi«r. loi. 

Figs, 150 and 151.— Collars for Catching Wasted Metal. 



tarnishing it, and to act as a flux, rub a tallow candle (or, 
as it is sometimes called, a touch) over the shaved part. 
The pipe can now be fixed ready for wiping. 

To catch the wasted metal when wiping the joint, a 
platform or collar will be required. To make it, procure 
two pieces of f-in. floor-board 1 ft. long, place them edge to 
edge, and having found the centre describe on the boards 
a circle, of 4j in. in diameter, in such a way that there shall 
be half a circle on each board. These half-circles should 
be cut out with a pad saw, and provision should be made 
for pinning the boards together, as shown at A in Fig. 150. 
Four screws should be inserted, as at b, for holding the 
edges of the boards together with string. The boards 
should be soiled all over, and they can of course be used 
again and again. 

An alternative method of making a collar is shown in 



70 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Fig. 151, which represents a piece of sheet lead containing 
a circle 12 in. in diameter and a projecting tongue, c being 
the 4j-in. opening, and the line D snowing where the lead 
has been cut for convenience in encircling the pipe. Fig. 
152 shows the boards in position ; the lead collar is applied 
in the same manner. Fasten the pipes against the wall by 
tying them to spikes driven into the joints of the brick- 




Fig. 152. — Upright Joint Ready for Wiping. 

work (Fig. 152). Fig. 153 shows the pipes ready for fitting ; 
care should be taken to ensure perfect contact, otherwise 
the solder will run down and form " tear-drops ,; inside the 
pipe. 

In learning to wipe a soldered pipe joint (see Fig. 154), 
it is very much better to proceed by stages than to try to 
wipe all at once. The first stage is pouring on the metal 
and " tinning ; - the joint,or causing n film of solder to alloy 



PIPE JOINTING. - 71 

with the surface of the pipe. The second stage is to form 
the joint of the shape required, and the third and final stage 
is to wipe it smooth. When the preparations already de- 
scribed have been made, the solder melted, and the iron 



Fig. 153. —Pipes Ready for Fitting'. 

made hot, the joint should be splashed with the molten 
metal, by the aid of the splash-stick, until the pipe is hot 
enough and sufficient metal has accumulated on it for the 
cloth to be used ; in judging the right temperature, ex- 
perience is the surest guide. Great care is necessary in 
melting the metal ; it is too hot when a piece of paper 
dipped into it bursts into flame ; if the paper turns brown 




Fig. 154. — Wiping Upright Joint. 

and smokes, it is at the right heat. If the surface of the 
paper is unchanged, the metal requires further heating. 
If allowed to get red hot, the solder deteriorates. The 
soldering-iron also should be heated to the proper tempera- 
ture, and the bulb filed clean and bright. The novice 



n PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORE. 

should pour the metal on to the shaved part, and on about 
two inches of the soiled part at each end of the joint. The 
cloth is held under the part being poured on, to catch the 
surplus solder. As the solder runs down the sides of the 
pipes and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up against the 
bottom to help to get up the heat, and also to tin the 
pipes. As soon as the pipe is well tinned, the solder 
poured on is formed into the shape of a joint. Quickness 
and dexterity in using the cloth and the iron are the es- 
sentials of joint-wiping, and no amount of theoretical know- 
ledge will compensate for their absence. The cloth used 
for the above joint should be folded to six thicknesses, 
and should measure, when folded, about 4j in. square. 
Begin at the top of the joint, and with the hot iron in one 
hand, and the cloth, which should be previously warmed, 
in the other, rub the iron over the metal on the joint and 
wipe round with the cloth quickly and lightly, working 
downwards until the joint is finished. Wipe the edges 
clean ; ragged edges are the mark of a slovenly workman. 
When the joint has partially cooled, it may be cleaned and 
brightened by rubbing it oyer with tallow and wiping off 
with a clean soft rag. The joint will crack and sweat if it 
is knocked before the solder has set ; the final operations, 
therefore, of removing the collar and re-soiling the pipe to 
show up the joint, should be carefully performed. All 
wasted metal should, of course, be collected and returned 
to the pot. 

The amount of solder for wiping joints used by plumbers 
in different parts of the country varies very much. For 
conveying water under pressure the following weights are 
a fair average. The value can be found by multiplying 
by the price of the solder per lb. : — 

Size of pipe in inches | § | f 1 lj li If 2 2£ 3 3£ 4 
Solder in lbs § } 1 1 l\ l\ If 2\ 2f 3 3j 4 4£ 

Even when working on the bench, there is a certain amount 
of solder wasted by splashing about when wiping, and in 
the form of dross when melting ready for use, but when 
working in houses, and especially in new buildings, or when 
making joints in difficult positions, the waste is often found 
to be considerable, 



PIPE JOINTING. 



73 



Lead and composition pipes of small bore and substance 
can be soldered together by copper bit or blowpipe, but the 
wiped joint is the stronger. To make either joint, the end 
of one pipe is opened to receive the end of the other. The 
opened end is reduced in thickness, and the outer edge 
only is strengthened by the solder when made with a copper 
bit ; the thinned part at the bottom of the cup or socket 
is not so strengthened. Hence the superiority of the wiped 
joint, in which the whole of the weakened parts are covered 
with a good thickness of solder. With service pipes, say, 
2 in. or 3 in. in diameter and the lead \ in. or | in. thick, 
sufficient heat could not be applied by means of a copper- 
bit to make a reliable joint, even when placed in a favour- 




Fig-. 155. — Brass Ring and Solder Joint. 



able position. A leaden jack pump put together, and the 
suction-pipe joined on with copper-bit joints, would last 
but a short time. It is only the unskilful plumber who 
holds that the latter method is as good as wiping. 

Even if the copper-bit joints were the stronger, it would 
be difficult to make them when the pipes are in their in- 
tended positions or when fixed horizontally. When copper- 
bits are used each man requires a fire or stove near him, 
thus adding to the risk of setting fire to the building. 
When wiping is the practice, one fire is sufficient for heat- 
ing several pots of solder, and the fire can be in an out- 
building or where there would be little risk of injury. 

Small joints could probably be made with the copper-bit 
in a little less time than wiping, but for all-round work a 
skilful plumber could wipe joints as fast as solder them 
with a bit. It is only on small jobbing works where it is 



74 



PR AC TIG AL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



difficult to get a fire for heating a pot of solder that the 
bit has an advantage in time. 

The wiped joint is rather difficult to make well and 
neatly, except by first-class workmen. The form of joint 
illustrated in Fig. 155 can, however, be made by any fairly 
competent workman, and gives a good joint with a very 
small amount of solder. A and b are the two ends of lead 
pipes to be joined ; c is a turned ring of brass, steel, or 
other suitable metal that cannot be fused by solder ; d is 




Fig. 156. — Lead Pipe Screw Coupling. 



the solder filling up the space between the lead pipes and 
the ring. Such joints have been carefully tested, and 
found to withstand a greater pressure than the pipe itself. 
A joint of this type for a 1-in. pipe requires only 1 oz. of 
solder, whereas a wiped joint would require 20 oz. The 
essential part of the joint is the brass ring c, which forms 
a support for the solder d, and reduces the workman's 
task merely to wiping off the superfluous metal. 

Many methods have been adopted for coupling lead 
pipes to pumps and other machinery, but as all these 
methods possess certain features in common, only one 



PIPE JOINTING. 



75 



example need be illustrated. This is shown in Fig. 156. In 
this case A is a casting to which the lead pipe b has to be 
connected. The casting is screwed on the outside and 
fitted with a nut, c. d is a bush placed over the pipe b 
and inside the nut c. The outside of the casting a is 




—Plumber's Soldering' Lamp. 

coned at the end to fit the inside of the bush D, so that 
when the nut is tightened the lead pipe is coned and a tight 
joint effected. 

For wiping a joint, using a splash-stick and a soldering 
iron, take a ladleful of metal, and with the splash-stick 
splash the solder on to the joint and soiling to get up the 
heat (the iron should be heating at the same time). When 



76 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



the pipes are sufficiently heated and there is enough 
solder on them to form the joint, take the iron, heated to 
a dull red, and rub it with a file to take off the dirt and 




Fig. 160. — Bolt-pin or Tommy. 



Fig'. 159. — Badly-made Branch 
Joint. 



scale ; then rub the iron all over the solder on the joint, 
and wipe as before. 

It is very handy at times to be able to make a joint 
without the use of metal-pot or iron, and this can easily 




Fig. 161. — Wiping Branch Joint. 

be done with a good blowlamp. To make the joint, take 
a strip of plumbers' solder run out about 15 in. or 16 in. 
long, and with the lamp warm up the joint (previously 
prepared as for wiping in the ordinary way) ; then melt 
off portions of the solder, and keep the soft solder more or 



PIPE JOINTIXG. 



11 



less in shape with the stick. Do not keep the lamp right 
on it full blast, but if the metal runs too fast and drops 
off, withdraw it a little or check the flame with the regu- 
lator. Having got sufficient solder on the joint and 
roughly shaped it, promptly pick up the cloth and wipe 
as before. A plumber's soldering and brazing lamp is 
shown by Fig. 157. 

A branch joint (show T n by Fig. 136, p. 59) is prepared 
by cutting a hole in one pipe somewhat smaller than the 
pipe that is to enter it, and working it up to a kind of 



;. i 




£*'-- 




HH 


.:%,- 


w 






>■ ;: 




£ If . 






- ** /'-■'-£ 


>>r^-:.' 






■«jT ' "" -ti^™ * . 


4a^~r. 








^^L 






:'mm^ ~ ^ ■ 


safe 


j 



Fig'. 162. — Wiping: Branch Joint. 

socket, as shown by Fig. 158. The entering pipe should 
never project into the other pipe further than the depth 
of this socket, or it would, in the case of waste or soil- 
pipe, cause obstructions. Fig. 159 shows a section of a 
badly-fitted branch joint, the proper way being shown by 
Figs. 133 and 135 (p. 59). The socket is worked up by 
means of the bolt-pin, or tommy (Fig. 160), which is 
inserted in the hole and struck with a hammer. Great 
care must be taken in fitting branch joints that they fit 
perfectly close, or the solder will run through. The 
wiping process (see Figs. 161 to 163) will be similar to that 
already described. 



78 PKJCTICAL PLUMBEBtf WORK. 

Taft joints (Figs. 121 and 122, p. 57) arc not much in 
favour with skilled plumbers. They are much decried by 
some, but if properly constructed they are a strong, use- 
ful joint. The method of operation is to taft back the edge 
of the lower pipe from 1 in. to 1\ in., according to the size 
of the pipe, and here is where many spoil the joint. A 
and b (Fig. 164) respectively show bad and good tafting ; 
at a the pipe is shown flanged back quite sharp and 
square. It is thus rendered very weak at the angle, where 
it is liable to break off should there be any weight 




Fig. 163. — Wiping 1 Branch Joint. 

or expansion and contraction of the pipe ; but if made 
with an easy curve, as shown at b (Fig. 164), the joint when 
completed (see Fig. 122, p. 57) is a very good one. It is 
probably the easiest of all wiped joints to make. After 
tafting back the pipe, shave the inside, soil the top pipe 
4 or 5 in., and shave the end l\ in. ; place in position, 
"touch" round, and either pour or splash on the solder, 
and when sufficiently plastic wipe as before described. 

The flange joint may be of either of the forms shown by 
Figs. 115 (p. 56) and 165. It is used mostly where a small 
pipe comes through a floor. To make the form shown by 
Fig. 165, first cut a lead collar or flange 3 in. or 4 in. larger 



PIPE JOINTING. 



79 



in diameter than the pipe that is to pass through it ; cut 
a hole the exact size of the pipe, and slip it over it, then 
cut the pipe off so that it stands up f in. or 1 in. above 
the flange. This is best done with a tenon saw and piece 
of board the thickness of the stand-up desired. Next drive 
the turnpin in to swell the pipe out a little, and then 
wwk the pipe down on the collar ; prepare and make the 
joint as described for the taft joint. In Fig. 165, a repre- 
sents the floor, b the lead collar or flange, c the lower 
pipe, d the upper pipe, and the dotted lines the wiped 
soldering. To make the form of joint shown by Fig. 115 
(p. 56) the instructions given in the previous paragraph 
will largely apply. 






-Bad and Good Taft 
Joints. 



Fig. 165. — Section of Flange 
Joint. 



The block flange joint (Fig. 124, p. 57) is stronger than 
the plain flange joint. The wood block through which the 
pipe passes is fixed in the wall to support the pipe. This 
block is dished out as shown, and the lead flange, with a 
hole cut in it, that will just admit the pipe, is dressed 
down into it ; the pipe is then passed up through the block 
and flange, and the turnpin driven in as previously men- 
tioned to open out the pipe. Now, instead of dressing it 
sharply back on the flange, it is left as shown in the 
sectional view (Fig. 124), so that the solder will run under- 
neath as wel as above the tafting, thus forming a very 
strong substantial point. Of course it will be noted that 
the outside of the pipe that is tafted back will require to 
be shaved and " touched ?; as well as the inner part. It 



SO PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK, 

is also advisable to tin the lead flange before putting in 
place, to ensure more perfect cohesion between the parts. 
This class of joint is mostly used when soil or vent pipes 
are fixed in the interior of dwellings, in a chase or cut- 
ting left in the wall for that purpose. 

An astragal joint is shown in elevation and section by 
Figs. 125 and 126 (p. 58), and it consists of a soldered 
joint with ornamental mouldings, or astragals, round the 
pipe. For the astragals, a pattern of the design is first 
made in wood, and from this a print is made in damp, 
loamy soil, in which molten lead is poured to form a cast- 
ing. If many are required, the wood pattern should be 
sent to a foundry, and a flask made in gun-metal, from 
which any number can be cast. These do not require so 
much cleaning up to make them look smart as those cast 
in sand. For fixing them to the lead soil pipes the back 
sides are tinned with a copper bit, and also corresponding 
parts on the pipes. The astragals are then folded about 
three parts round the pipe, and 9 in. apart, and " sweated ' 
on by means of a blowpipe. If this is neatly done, no 
solder will be visible. 

The tack (the plain flat part shown in Figs. 125 and 126) 
should be cut out of 8-lb. sheet lead, about 9 in. square, 
the edges trued and trimmed, one end soiled 3 in. and 
shaved 1 in. wide ; corresponding spaces for a pair of tacks, 
prepared on the soil pipe, between the astragals and 
soldered seams, are then wiped or floated with metal and 
a plumber's iron. Cast-lead tacks have an advantage, as 
the nail holes are strengthened by having an extra thickness 
of the metal round them. A cast tack and pipe are show^n 
in elevation and horizontal section by Fig. 166 ; a folding 
tack and pipe are similarly shown by Fig. 167, and a soldered 
face tack and pipe by Fig. 168. The letters in Figs. 166 to 
168 merety indicate the line of section. 

Expansion joints are of many kinds. An ordinary one 
is similar to a slip joint, but an indiarubber or asbestos 
ring is used instead of any packing or jointing material 
which would become hard. .The first-named joint is gener- 
ally used on outside lead soil pipes, and the latter two for 
waste pipes, but chiefly for those through which hot water 
passes. 

Although a lead pipe can be wiped to a cast-iron pip 3 



PIPE JOINTING. 



81 



with a fair amount of ease, the joint will not stand satis- 
factorily. The best way is to file clean the end of the 
cast-iron pipe and then coat it with pure tin, using sal- 
ammoniac as a flux. The pipe is then washed to remove 
the sal-ammoniac, and afterwards re-tinned, using resin 
and grease as a flux. A plumber's joint (3^ in. long for 4 
in. pipes) is then wiped in the usual way. Great pains will 
now have been taken to make a good, sound, strong joint 





Fig. 166. — Elevation and Section 
of Cast Tack and Pipe. 



Fig*. 167. — Elevation and Section 
of Folding Tack and Pipe. 



between the two metals. Nevertheless, in the course of 
time (it may be only a few years) the iron will come out of 
the solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring of 
iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This rust will 
swell a little and cause the end of the soldering slightly to 
curl outwards. Eventually the rust will creep between the 
solder and the iron and destroy the adhesion of the one 
to the other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the solder 
f 



82 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

should contain as great a proportion as possible of the 
metals that are to be united. The joint would, if out of 
doors, be subjected to temperatures ranging over 90° F. ; 
under such conditions the solder would expand '001251 in., 
and the iron would expand '000549 in., or less than half as 
much as the solder. The joint would therefore eventually 
become a loose ring on the iron pipe, but not on the lead 
pipe, as the expansion of lead and solder do not differ 
much. 

Numerous experiments have been tried for overcoming 
the, difficulty of wiping joints on ordinary tin-lined pipes, 
but the only method which has been found to approach 
success has been to insert a long nipple of tinned sheet 
iron ; this method, however, has not been wholly success- 
ful with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. However, on 
a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints can be made very 
easily, without the tin lining melting. 

It would often be a convenience if copper pipes could 
be united satisfactorily by wiping, but plumbers' wiped 
joints are of no use with copper tube, for the expansion 
and contraction will not permit them to remain sound, as 
many hot-water engineers know to their cost ; brazed joints 
would be satisfactory, though troublesome to make. If 
copper pipe is thick enough to be threaded, have the fit- 
tings threaded also, and screw them together the same as 
with iron pipe, except that with long runs there must be ex- 
pansion joints or other provision made for expansion. 
Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes is strongly made 
by " sweating " ona sleeve and then wiping a joint over 
the whole, it is doubtful if it would be permanent. It is 
very probable that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is 
in damp ground. However, should circumstances suggest 
that a wiped joint might answer, the work is done as de- 
scribed below. 

Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than wiped 
joints on lead or composition pipes. Copper pipes 2 in. 
or more in diameter have joints from 3^ in. to 4 in. long, 
4-in. pipes have joints about 5 in. long ; but it must be re- 
membered that whilst reasonable length and thickness of 
joint are necessary to enable the copper pipe to withstand 
pressure and strain, the maximum time of service does not 
depend on the length or thickness of the joint as in lead- 



PIPE JOINTING. 



83 



pipe work. That which determines practically the life of 
the joint is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned be- 
fore making the wiped joint. If the interiors of the two 
pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 in. to 8 in., if the joint is 
cut open, in a few years' time, it is found that the tinning 
has diminished to 2 in. or 3 in., a corroding action having 
taken place at the end of the tinning ; for this reason it is 
advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, so as to retard 
the separation and ultimate failure of the joint. In tinning 
copper, first thoroughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid 



Fig*. 169. — Copper Pipes 
Prepared for Jointing:. 



"Q 




Fig". 170. — Wiped Joint on 
Copper Pipes. 



Fig. 168.— Soldered Face Tack and Pipe. 



or scour with sand and water, and then rinse it with 
chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. Melt some pure 
tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a flux, and dip the copper in 
the tin, or pour or rub the latter over the copper. In 
pipes forming a portion of a distillery plant it is especially 
important that untinned spots are not left on the interiors 
of the pipe ends, as at such spots the destruction of the 
tinning commences at once. In Fig. 169, which is a part 
sectional view of the two pipe ends prepared for jointing, 
A shows the extent of the tinning, which is on the exterior 
and interior of the pipe ends and on the edges also. Fig. 
170 shows the tinned ends slipped together ready for 



Si PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

wiping, the form of the required joint being shown by the 
dotted lines. The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning is ar- 
rested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient lap is given, 
the pipe may be handled before the joint is wiped — a great 
convenience. The pipe ends are placed together, when 
practicable, over the iron pot containing the molten solder, 
which is then poured continuously over the joint until a 
heat is got up. This practice is not possible with lead or 
brass pipes, because in the one case the lead would melt, 
and in the other the molten zinc would leave the brass 
and ruin the solder. When the pipes cannot be moved, a 
grain scoop (a kind of shovel) is placed beneath the joint 
and the solder poured on (rapidly. When a thorough heat 
has been obtained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of 
a cloth and of the mushy solder from the scoop, in much 
the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is wiped. 

Plumbers are constantly called upon to make soldered 
joints in small-bore composition pipes used for conveying 
gas or water. The soldering of compo pipes is best done 
with a blowlamp ; this is the general practice, the copper- 
bit being used only for tinning, though it can of course be 
used for making any joints required in gasfitting. A tool 
that simplifies joint-making is shown in Fig. 171. It con- 
sists of two pieces of sheet copper soldered into the form 
of cones, and then joined together. A similar tool, made 
of sheet iron with a cutting edge, can be purchased ready 
made, but it thins the pipe too much ; the tool shown in 
Fig. 171 can be made in an hour, and answers its purpose 
perfectly. 

The joint shown in Fig. 172 is called a copperbit joint, 
and to make it the pointed end of the bit is inserted in the 
pipe and pressed down, and at the same time turned round, 
thereby opening the pipe. The end of the other piece of 
pipe is contracted or tapered, and is firmly pressed with a 
screw motion into the open end of the first piece of pipe, 
and it will be found that they are held well together, and 
that a practically tight joint is made before soldering. 

When ready for soldering, slightly open the socket pipe 
end with a turn-pin, to form a bed for the solder, and, after 
scraping the parts clean, rub the joint with tallow and 
press the pipes firmly together. Having placed a tin con- 



PIPE JOINTING. 



85 



taining crushed resin within easy reach, light the lamp, 
take a stick of fine solder in the right hand- and the blow- 
lamp in the left, and blow a flame round the joint (taking 
care not to keep the flame long in one place or the pipe 
will melt), hold the end of the solder in the flame until 
hot, dip it in the resin and rub round the joint. When the 
pipe is hot enough to melt the solder, cease blowing, and 
press the solder all round the joint, with a dotting motion, 
using the lamp as required. When enough solder to form 
the joint has been deposited on the pipe, the solder is 
made to flow by again heating ; it will then form a collar 
as shown in the illustration. Cease blowing directly there 
is any sign of the pipe melting, and avoid having too much 
solder on the joint, or it will run down over the ledge left 




Fig. 172. — Copper- 
bit Joint. 



Fig. 171.— Tool for Making 
Joints. 



Fig. 173.— 

Branch Joint in 

Composition 

Pipes. 



to hold it and disfigure the joint. The resin is removed 
by rubbing round the joint with tallow and wiping off with 
clean rag, but be sure the joint is set before disturbing it. 

A branch joint (Fig. 173) is made by running a file 
across the pipe to remove part of the metal, and then with 
a brewer's gimlet or a knife making an opening, say J- in. 
less than the diameter of the pipe to be inserted ; a piece of 
round wood, tapered, that just enters this hole is inserted 
with a screwing motion that slightly burrs up the sides of 
the hole and makes it circular, ensuring a perfect fit with 
the spigot pipe. Slightly contract the end of the pipe to 
be fitted, as in making the copperbit joint, and insert it in 
position with a gentle pressure until a tight fit is obtained. 
Scribe round at the junction, take out and cut off the end 



86 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

of the pipe to J in. of the scribed line, run the round file 
across the opening to form a seat for the solder, cut away 
any projections from the inside of each pipe, then rub with 
tallow, and press the pipes together and solder. In making 
a branch joint at the side when it is impossible to get 
underneath with the lamp, the solder is put on at the 
sides, and when heated carefully can be made to flow 
underneath. A bit of looking-glass held under the joint 
will show if the joint is a good one. 

Before brass or copper fittings can be soldered to 
compo, the end that requires fixing must be tinned — that 
is, covered with a coating of solder. The usual fittings are 
to be bought ready tinned, but it is the usual practice to 
re-tin them, as the coating given by the manufacturer is 
generally insufficient to make a good joint. The end to be 
tinned is filed perfectly clean, care being taken that no 
pairt is missed or the solder will not adhere. Have ready 
a well-heated copperbit and a supply of fine solder ; 
some powdered resin is sprinkled on the brass and the 
copperbit and solder immediately rubbed on it, more 
resin or solder being added as necessary ; when it is well 
covered with solder, finish by drawing any drops of solder 
from the end of the brass towards the opposite end, be- 
cause any globules or drops of solder left on the brass will, 
when it is placed inside the compo pipe and heat applied, 
melt and run down inside the pipe, making it difficult to 
secure a proper joint. The end of the compo pipe is then 
opened out to admit the brass, which is pressed firmly into 
the pipe, the flame of the lamp being directed chiefly on 
the brass. As brass is a good conductor of heat, it is 
necessary in tinning small fittings to hold them with a 
pair of pliers, or to adopt some such contrivance as a piece 
of wood driven into the brass and used as a handle ; by 
the latter method much better control is obtained than by 
using pliers. 



87 
CHAPTER VI. 

LEAD-BURNING. 

The art of lead-burning, although very properly allied to 
the plumbing trade, was not generally recognised until 
quite recently as being part of the plumber's craft. It is, 
however, a most useful acquisition, and the introduction 
of lead-burning tests into the Practical Examinations in 
Plumbers' Work of the City and Guilds of London In- 
stitute renders it imperative that the student should be 
well acquainted with both the theory and the practice. 

The term lead-burning, although generally accepted anrl 
understood, is not strictly accurate, as the lead or metal 
is not really burned, but is fused. The process is also 
sometimes referred to as autogenous soldering. This term 
is also incorrect, as solder is not used in connection with 
lead-burning ; however, a strip of pure lead is applied in 
much the same way as a stick of solder is in the ordinary 
process of soft-soldering. Briefly, lead-burning is a pro- 
cess by which two pieces of lead may be joined by fusion. 
The credit of the invention of lead-burning is due to a 
Frenchman, who in 1838 found that by a combination of 
hydrogen and oxygen a flame could be produced that would 
unite certain metals which melt at comparatively low 
temperatures, and especially lead and tin. 

Although a very useful process, and one easily ac- 
quired, very few plumbers know how to do lead-burning, 
and the few who have the necessary knowledge and prac- 
tice endeavour to keep it to themselves as much as pos- 
sible, so that others who know little about it regard lead- 
burning as a very dangerous operation, and content them- 
selves with soldering or brazing any piece of work which 
may require connecting. 

There are two methods of lead-burning. In the first the 
junctures of the two sheets of metal are scraped clean and 
bright, the joint bedded in sand so as to form a channel 
from end to end, each side of the channel is soiled to pre- 
vent adhesion of lead, and lead heated above its melting 



83 TRACT LGAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

point is poured along the channel until the lead junctures 
fuse together. The surplus lead is then shaved off. In 
the second method a blowpipe is employed, and the flame 
is fed with hydrogen gas generated in a vessel on the 
spot. A foot-blower is employed to force a stream of 
atmospheric air into a stream of hydrogen gas, and the jet 
of flame is directed on to the cleaned joint, and this flame 
melts the lead as it is moved along the juncture. It is this 
second system that is generally meant when the term 
"lead-burning " is used. 

This system of joining metals has many advantages 
over soldering. The difficulty of making joints where 
pure tin has to be dealt with is entirely overcome by 
burning. For lining tanks for chemical purposes, or 
making chemical apparatus, where solder would be quickly 
destroyed, lead-burning is the only method which can be 
adopted ; for joining seams or pipes for lining stone tanks 
where wiping is extremely difficult, or sinks to which hot 
water is laid on, it can also be successfully employed. 

An advantage of lead-burning over soldering is that 
only one metal is used, and corrosion by electrolysis, or 
voltaic action, does not take place as when another metal, 
such as tin in solder, is in contact in a wet position. The 
only circumstances in plumbers' work in which burning 
must be insisted upon are in chemical works or manu- 
factories where chemical acids are used. The pipes, tanks, 
acid chambers, etc., have to be made of lead, which should 
be as pure as possible, free from alloys of other metals 
(excepting when hardened by antimony for special pur- 
poses, such as acid pumps), and joined together without 
the aid of solders of any kind. 

Lead-burning is extensively employed in the fitting up 
of a chemical plant, in which wood and stone tanks must 
be lined with sheet lead, while lead-piping is largely used. 
All seams and joints in connection with this work must be 
burned, as not only is solder subject to chemical action, 
but where heat is applied the unequal expansion and con- 
traction would quickly break the joints or seams. Labora- 
tory fittings, such as sinks, trays, benches, etc., which 
are generally covered or lined with lead, and the various 
appliances in connection with chemical experiments, all 
have to be burned where a joint or seam is necessary. 



LEAD BURNING. 89 

In connection with domestic plumbing arrangements the 
burning process may be used to advantage in making the 
seams on lead soil-pipes, for the fixing on of astragals, 
fete. An upright joint on the face of a building is difficult 
to make ; and when the pipe is exposed to the direct rays 
of the sun, the life of a burned joint would be very con- 
siderably longer than that of a wiped joint. The joint 
can be made in any position, and damage to the building 
through the cutting of brickwork or the fixing of special 
arrangements necessary for joint wiping is of course en- 
tirely avoided. An extra branch may be put in without 
disturbing the stack. The only disadvantage in this con- 
nection is that a brass ferrule cannot be fixed to a lead 
pipe by this process, but in connecting a metallo-ceramic 
joint such as Doulton's to a lead soil-pipe, the process may 
be usefully employed. In the lining of sinks and trays 
with lead the seams are easily and securely made, and 
there is equal expansion and contraction of the metal 
throughout. 

Lead-burning apparatus consists of an appliance by 
which hydrogen gas can be freely generated, and a machine 
by which air can be forced along, also a quantity of rubber 
tube, and a junction piece and jet. 

Hydrogen may be produced in many ways, but the 
method most in favour is by the action of diluted sulphuric 
acid on zinc. When these two substances are brought into 
contact with each other, the sulphuric acid is split up, 
forming zinc sulphate and giving off hydrogen, thus: — 
Zn + H 2 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + H 2 . Hydrogen is the lightest 
substance known, and is colourless, invisible, and in- 
odorous. It is taken as a standard by which all other 
gases are compared for weight. When in free combination 
with atmospheric air, it forms a highly explosive mixture, 
and this fact must be borne in mind when the lead-burning 
apparatus is being used. If due care is exercised, there 
need be no uneasiness on the part of the operator ; but he 
should not hold a light over or near the generating 
machine, nor should he attempt to light the outlet tap in 
order to ascertain whether or not hydrogen is being pro- 
duced. 

The old type of lead-burning machine consisted of an 
open cylinder, from 3 ft. to 4 ft. high, and about 1 ft. in 



90 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

diameter, holding the acid and lined with lead. A closed 
vessel known as an ometer, containing the zinc, was im- 
mersed in the cylinder, and a pipe from the top of the 
ometer carried off the gas (see Fig. 174). This was a 
simple appliance, easily cleaned and charged, but its dis- 
advantage lay in the fact that if gas was generated in 
larger volume than was required by the operator, it was 
wasted ; and the ometer, when not in use, had to be lifted 
out of the cylinder, and when again immersed occupied 
some little time before it was ready for use. The air was 
generally supplied from a circular bellows encased in an 
iron frame and worked by an assistant. The arrangement 
is shown in Fig. 175. 

The actual dimensions of the old-type machine shown 
by Fig. 174 are 3 ft. high and 14 in. in diameter. There 
are two cases, or chambers, the outer one being usually a 
cylindrical vessel, lined with lead ; this is half filled with 
a mixture of sulphuric acid and water — about a quart of 
acid to two gallons of water. The chamber d is an en- 
closed lead vessel, with a pipe leading from the top, and a 
loose lead bottom which can be taken out when required. 
Into this receptacle is placed from 4 lb. to 6 lb. of zinc 
spelter ; and, when it is immersed in the dilute acid, the 
liquid finds its way among the zinc through perforations in 
the bottom of the inside case, and chemical action is set 
up, hydrogen gas being generated. This, when the tap 
o is turned on, is conveyed along a rubber tube to a 
junction, where it is mixed with air, forced along from the 
bellows (Fig. 175) and carried to the jet, which is a small 
brass tube with a cap screwed on the end. In this cap is 
a small hole, through which the gas is emitted, and when 
a light is applied to it a long, thin jet of flame is produced, 
which gives little or no light, but an intense heat, and 
when the flame is applied to the surface of metal it readily 
fuses it. Should such a machine come into the hands of 
the reader, it should be operated as follows : — When the 
machine is charged with the acid, water, and zinc, and the 
ometer is immersed, open the tap at the top and let out 
the air. Then close it, and allow the machine to stand for 
a short time, until the aeid has begun to act on the zinc. 
Meanwhile connect the pipes to the tap and the bellows, 
and then, whilst an assistant operates the bellows, the 



LEAD EUBNING. 



91 












v/, , 


.;-"-, ./' 








^^<^ 






%&^^J 


KIP 


7^'/^ 


, y 


'-:■ ~, 


.TT^Z, 


v/^y 


1 




<st 





Fig. 175.— Hand Bellows 



Fig. 174. — Lead-burners' Old Type of 
G-as-generating Machine. 



92 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



gas may be turned on. When the flame is adjusted, apply 
the jet of flame to the prepared seam in the manner ex- 
plained later in the chapter. The hottest part of the flame 
is the centre of the thickest portion, usually about 1 in. 
from the cap. Proficiency will be attained after a little 
practice. 

A complete machine for lead-burning can be made 
simply and easily if the following directions are observed. 
Illustrations of the machine are shown in diagram form so 
that the construction of the machine may be the more 



o 



H. 






i. 

2 



n 






Fig. I 



T 



TO 



I 


ii Hi 

1 'ill 
Oil 


1 

fill 


ell 


Hi! i 



Enlarged View of 
Cup-valve. 



L__i 



Fig. 176. — Air Chamber of Lead-burning Machine. 

easily understood. The air chamber (Fig. 176) supplies, a 
current of air and the device (Fig. 177) supplies the hydro- 
gen gas ; tubes from the two chambers are connected to the 
breeches piece or junction piece (Fig. 178), the air and gas 
mix, and are burnt at the jet v shown in Fig. 178. 

The cylinder shown in Fig. 176 is made of No. 15 zinc, 
and is divided into two equal parts A and b. From the 
bottom of the chamber a a lead or zinc pipe c extends to 
the bottom of the chamber B. This pipe rests on the 
bottom, but has three or four semicircular pieces cut out 
of its end. d is a cleansing screw to give access to b, and E 



LEAD BUBNING. 



93 



is a stop-tap leading from the air chamber b. f is a brass 
air pump, and G is an iron rod fitted with a handle and 
having at its lower end a leather cup-valve shown enlarged 
attached by means of two circular plates, h and J are 
valves which open upwards, k is a stop-tap, and l is a pipe 
leading to the chamber b. When a supply of air is re- 
quired, the lower half of the cylinder is filled with water. 
The stop-tap k is then opened and air forced in by means 
of a pump. This forces the water, through the pipe c, 
from the chamber b to the upper chamber a. The stop- 




k— 1-4 H" 

Fig. 177. — Gas-generator of Lead- 
burning Machine. 




Fig. 178. — Breeches Piece. 



tap k is then closed, and when the supply of air is wanted 
the stop-tap e is opened. 

The gas-making apparatus shown at Fig. 177 consists of 
two vessels M and N made out of 6-lb. lead ; M is an acid 
chamber, and N the chamber in which the gas is generated. 
o is an opening in the bottom of N to enable zinc to be 
placed in it. This opening is covered by a flap made out 
of a piece of lead, the lead being soldered along one edge. 
£ is the outlet pipe for the gas, and is cut from a i-in. 
7-lb. lead pipe ; it is provided with a ^-in. gas stop-tap at 
the end. At q is shown a handle made from i-in. 7-lb. lead 
pipe. 

To manufacture the gas, zinc clippings are put in the 
chamber n, which is then placed inside m ; this latter 



94 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

chamber is filled with dilute sulphuric acid in the propor- 
tion of 1 part of acid to 8 parts of clean water. The acid 
should be added to the water slowly, and stirred all the 
while. A chemical action takes place between the acid and 
the zinc, the result being that hydrogen gas is evolved, as 
explained on p. 89. 

In Fig. 178, R is a brass breeches or junction pipe pro- 
vided with two stop-taps s s for regulating the supply of 
gas and air. t t are rubber tubes, one of which is con- 
nected to E (Fig. 176) and the other to p (Fig. 177). u (Fig. 
178) is a brass pipe leading from the breeches pipe R, the 
burner v being connected to it with 3 ft. or 4 ft. of rubber 
tube, so that the operator can move the burner as may be 
convenient to suit his work. 

To set the machine in operation, the lower half of the 
cylinder (Fig. 176) is filled with water, the stop-tap k is 
opened, and air is forced in by the air pump pressing the 
water into the upper half of the cylinder. The stop-tap 
K is then closed, leaving the lower half of the cylinder 
filled with air that is compressed by the weight of the 
water in the chamber A. The zinc is placed into N (Fig. 
177), and the chamber placed into m, which is then charged 
with dilute sulphuric acid. The stop-tap p is opened to 
allow the air in the chamber b to escape, and the gas 
takes its place. The rubber tubes are then slipped on, and 
the burning is begun. Should the pressure of the gas in 
the chamber n become too great, it may force the acid out 
of chamber m (Fig. 177) ; the operator should therefore be 
careful to stand clear, and not get over these chambers 
when they are charged. 

Coal-gas may be used for lead-burning in combination 
with oxygen under pressure, as used for limelight. This 
is very convenient for a small job, all that is required 
being a tube to connect to the gas fittings and a steel 
cylinder containing oxygen, which is made by Brings Oxy- 
gen Company and may be procured in most towns, or 
oxygen which can be easily carried about. 

The lead-burning apparatus illustrated by Figs. 179 to 
191 may be used for all ordinary work, and when properly 
attended to will give excellent results. Undoubtedly it is 
the best of those described here. The gas generating 
machine is illustrated by Figs. 179 to 182, and it is made 



LEAD BURNING. PS 

up of a sheet-iron outer casing, strongly made, with 
riveted seam, as shown in Fig. 183, and with handles at- 




Fig. 179. Fig. 180. 

Figs. 179 and 180. — Front and Side Elevations of Hydrogen Generator. 



tached. A stout rim is formed on the top and bottom, as 
shown, and the machine generally must be not only port- 
able, but capable of withstanding rough usage. Through 
a hand-hole A (see also Fig. 184) in the side the zinc or 
spelter is put into the lower chamber, and another hole 



96 



PRACTICAL PLUMBEBS' WORK. 



near the bottom is for running off the spent liquid and for 
cleaning out. 

The internal construction is entirely of lead. The 




Fig. 181.— Plan of 
Hydrogen Generator. 




Fig. 182— Section of 
Hydrogen Generator. 



Fig. 188.— 
Riveted Seam. 



casing is first lined with lead, 5 lb. or 6 lb. per ft. The 
recess b is lined with a piece worked cup-shaped and 
burned to the bottom piece. All the jointing in connection 
with this must be burned, no solder being admissible, ex- 
cept for attaching the outlet tap to the pipe taking off the 



LEAD BURNING. 



i)l 



gas. A piece of 2-in. strong lead pipe is next fixed to the 
bottom of the lower chamber, dipping into the recess and 
attached so as to allow the liquid to flow freely up and 
down from one chamber to the other. 

The diaphragm c may next be fixed, the pipe being 
tafted over and burned. This diaphragm must also be at- 
tached to the lead linings all round, and be quite water- and 
air-tight. Another hole is made in the diaphragm, and a 
piece of J-in. 6-lb. lead pipe d is fixed over this, being 
bent at the top, and a tap fixed on as shown. .This pipQ 
is for carrying off the gas which is generated in the bot- 




Fig. 184.— Hand Hole Cap of 
Hydrogen Generator. 




Fiff. 186. 



Figs. 185 and 186.— Side Elevation and 
Plan of Junction Piece. 



torn portion. A perforated cover is now put on and at- 
tached to the lining, and the machine is ready for charging. 
Generally it is not advisable to use zinc clippings or old 
zinc that has been stripped from roofs, etc. ; cast spelter 
should be obtained. This can be got in plates about 9 in. 
by 18 in., and from 1 in. to 1^ in. thick. It is broken up 
into convenient pieces, and placed in the machine through 
the hand-hole, not dropped or thrown in, or the lining and 
pipe may be damaged. From 14 lb. to 16 lb. may be put 
in, and the plugs screwed up tight. Next put about 2 gal. 
of water in at the top, and then about 1 qt. of good com- 
mercial sulphuric acid. Open the gas tap, and allow the 
air to escape from the bottom chamber. The liquid will 
then take the place of the air, and chemical action will be 
set up, hydrogen being evolved. Then the tap is shut, and 
Q 



98 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK 

this part of the apparatus is ready for use. As the volume 
of gas increases, the liquid is gradually forced down and 
up the pipe into the top receptacle, so that when the lower 
part of the appliance is full of hydrogen the diluted acid 
is driven away from the zinc, and no further action takes 
place until the pressure of gas is relieved. The pipes are 
of ordinary rubber tube, § in. in diameter, about 40 ft. 
being required ; this is cut in two, one pipe to convey the 
air, and the other to carry the gas along to the breeches 
piece or junction piece (see Figs. 185 and 186), where ths 
two gases are combined. This junction piece is easily 
made up by screwing two elbow-burner sockets into a 
brass T-piece, fitting a tap for hose connection into each 
elbow, and a straight brass nipple into the other socket of 
the T, as shown. A short piece of rubber tube connects 
this with the jet (see Fig. 187), which is a brass arm 
slightly bent at one end and screwed. A cap with a small 



Fig. 187. — Jet of Lead -burning Machine. 

hole is fitted on, and this is the point at which the mixture 
of gas and air issues and is burnt. 

The supply of air is required to be in a steady, con- 
stant stream, and under pressure, and is obtained from the 
machine shown by Figs. 176 and 188 to 191. It is a simple 
appliance, and may be made up of strong zinc or galvan- 
ised iron. It consists of two chambers connected by a 
pipe perforated as shown, and an air pump is connected to 
the lower chamber. A tap fixed in the side forms the air 
outlet, to which the rubber tube is connected. Water is 
poured into the top portion of the appliance, flowing down 
the pipe and filling the lower part ; then air is pumped in, 
which forces the water back into the upper chamber. 
This weight of water exerts a pressure on the air below, 
and when the tap is opened the air is displaced by the 
water. When the supply is exhausted, the pump is again 
brought into requisition, and the same operation is re- 
peated. A continuous supply of air is thus available, and, 



LEAD BURNING. 



99 



like the gas supply, is regulated by means of the taps on 
the junction piece. 

Experience will enable the operator to determine when 
he has the right proportions of gas and air. The follow- 
ing remarks, however, will afford an idea as to the colour 




Fig. 188. Fig. 189. 

Figs, 188 and 189. — Front and Side Elevations of Air Machine. 



100 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



and size of the flame necessary. Without wind (air), or 
with insufficient wind, the flame will be of a yellowish 





Ficr, 191.— Plan of Air Machine. 



Fig. 190.— Part Section of Air Machine. 



colour and of rugged appearance. This kind of flame is 
useless for burning. Sufficient air must be mixed with it 



LEAD BURNING. 101 

to cause the flame to become pencil-shaped and of a bluish 
tint. When the flame is in this condition, it is ready for 
use. Too much wind, however, must not be used, or the 
flame will go out completely. The wind-cock should be 
opened gently to prevent this sudden extinction. Some- 
times the dilute acid is blown out of the burner with the 
gas, causing the flame to become irregular, and finally to 
go out. When this takes place, it is an indication that 
the acid is too strong and generates the gas too quickly. 
The obvious remedy is further dilution of the acid. 

Notes to be remembered when using a lead-burning 
machine are as follows: — (1) Care must be taken not to 
stand over the machine when it is charged with acid, in 



m g<m g&? 





Fig. 192.— Butted Seam Fig. 193.— Lapped Seam 

Partly Burnt. Partly Burnt. 

case the acid should bubble up (which it often does) and 
splash the operator. (2) The gas should not be allowed to 
escape in large quantities. (3) An old-type machine should 
only be charged up with sufficient acid to do the job in 
hand. (4) In no circumstances must the gas be burnt at 
the nozzle on the gas-making machine ; if a match is ap- 
plied to light it at this nozzle, in all probability it will 
light back to the chamber and explode. (5) In recharging 
the machine a light must not be brought anywhere near or 
an explosion will, take place. A light must not in any 
circumstances be brought close to the machine when it is 
charged up. (6) An old-type machine must be thoroughly 
cleaned out with water (preferably hot) after use, especially 
the gas-making chamber, in order to dissolve and wash out 
the accumulation of sulphate of zinc, and to wash out the 
acid, to prevent it from continually generating gas. Only 



102 



PEAGTIGAL PLUMBERS' WORK, 



points 2, 4, and 5 are of especial application to a modern 
machine of the type last described. 

The seams in sheet lead-burning are of two kinds : one 
forming a butted joint, the other a lapped joint. In burn- 
ing a butted seam the two edges of the lead to be joined 
are butted together, and shaved about i to f in. or slightly 
less on each side. The gas and air are turned on and ad- 
justed so as to produce a flame from about 5 in. to 6 in. 
long, and tapering to a fine point. The hottest part of 
the flame is the centre of the thickest portion, about 1 in. or 
1^ in. from the jet. Hold the jet in the right hand, and a 
strip of lead in the left, and allow the flame to play on the 
end of the strip, which is held just above the seam. As the 



ttmmuKrrrrr 



2 




Fig. 194. — Horizontal or Side Fig, 195. — Vertical or Upright 
Burning. Burning. 



strip melts, the jet is diverted on to the seam, so as to 
fuse the edges together, the additional lead forming a 
thickened portion. The strip is again melted, and joined 
to the edges, and also to the thickest part, and so on 
along the length. Care should be taken to burn the lead 
through, but not for the metal to flow beneath the 
seam. After a little practice, the operator will know 
exactly when to apply and when to remove the jet. Fig. 
192 shows a flat butted joint partly burnt. The stick of 
lead is just nipped with the flame, and a bead of lead 
dropped on the seam. The flame is then directed on to 
this bead until it is fused with the seam. When bead and 
seam are melted together, the flame is immediately 
raised. The next bead of lead is then dropped on the 



LEAD BURNING. 



103 



seam so as to half-cover the previous bead, as shown at 
M (Fig. 192). The flame is then directed on the second 
bead, fusing it to the seam and the previous bead, the 
flame being immediately raised after these are fused to- 
gether ; and this operation is repeated until the whole of 
the seam is burnt. 

Fig. 193 shows a flat lapped joint, partly burnt. In 
burning this joint, the stick of lead is only required to 
fill up any irregularities in the burning, and is not re- 
quired to form the seam in the same way as it is in a 
butted joint, because in lapped burning the overcloak is 
burnt down on to the undercloak, as shown at Fig. 194. 

In horizontal and vertical burning, lapped joints only 



sf%^& 




Fig. 196.— Burning 
Upright Joint. 



Fig. 197. — Branch Joint 
Ready for Burning. 



should be used. Fig. 194 shows a specimen of horizontal 
or side burning, and Fig. 195 one of vertical or upright 
burning. In burning either of these, the stick of lead is 
not required at all, the overcloak being in each case burnt 
down on to the undercloak. Care must be taken that both 
the overcloak and undercloak of a lapped joint are well 
shaved. The seams should not be soiled or greased, and 
care must be taken not to tarnish them in any way. If 
the lead is not shaved quite clean, or if it becomes tar- 
nished after it is shaved, it will be found difficult to burn 
it together successfully. In lining cisterns, the joints must 
always be kept w T ell out of the angles ; otherwise the job 
will become long and difficult. 

In burning a vertical lapped seam, starting at the 
bottom, the lapping lead is melted, and as it runs is turned 



1(H PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

on to the back portion and fused into it. A slight pro- 
jection is formed, which holds the next melting, and so 
on, each layer forming a base for the next, and adding 
to the height until the top is reached. No tallow or 
smudge is necessary. The operator will soon detect the 
presence of any foreign substance or dirt on the lead, and 
the shavehook should be kept handy to remove it. 

In practising either horizontal or vertical burning, the 
student should first place his burning at an easy angle — 
say, at about 25° or 30° — gradually raising it as he be- 
comes proficient, until the seam is in a horizontal or 
vertical position as desired. Two surfaces can be burned 
together in any position — horizontal, vertical, or even over- 
head, where soldering would be impossible. 

Pipe joints can also be made by burning. First one 
pipe is opened to form a socket like a slip joint. The 
male part, which must enter at least f in., must be well 
shaved and made to fit tight. Fig. 196 shows an upright 
joint prepared and partly burnt. Fig. 197 shows a section 
of a branch joint as prepared for burning. Care must be 
taken to work up a good thick shoulder for the socket N. 

The seams on hand-made soil and rainwater pipes are 
also often burnt together instead of being soldered in the 
usual way, butted joints being used for this purpose. 
An iron mandrel or pipe is placed inside the pipe to pre- 
vent the lead from running through during the process. 
The mandrel should be slightly warmed before the burning 
is begun. 



105 



CHAPTER VII. 

LEADWORK ON ROOFS. 

Flats and roofs are covered with sheet lead because of the 
eminent fitness of this material for use in situations ex- 
posed to the action of air and water. Some few years ago, 
Mr. George Ewart in an essay upon sheet metal as a roof- 
covering, said that if the question of durability were 
merely one of weight, lead would be nearly twice as 
durable as zinc, and at least a third more durable than 
copper. The firmness of the material can best be in- 
dicated, perhaps, by the relative amount of conductivity, 
which in lead may be represented as 230 ; nearly twice as 
high in zinc, say 430 ; while in copper it is more than twice 
as high as zinc, and more than four times as high as lead, 
namely 1,000. The conclusion arrived at from these 
figures is strengthened by the figures representing the 
fusibility of the different metals, namely lead, 617° F. ; 
zinc, 800° F. ; and copper, nearly four times that of lead, 
and nearly three times that of zinc, namely 2,143° F. 
Roughly, it may be said that lead and copper are of about 
equal durability, particularly as neither of these metals 
is easily acted upon by acids. 

The softness of lead has its advantages, since it is easy 
to use it of great thickness ; thus lead may be laid of a 
thickness weighing perhaps 6 lb. or 7 lb. to the square foot 
as easily as copper weighing only 16 oz. or 18 oz. to the 
foot. Lead of 7 lb. to the foot forms a practically perma- 
nent covering, lasting upwards of a hundred years, if 
properly laid and in favourable situations. 

Flat roofs are very likely to be walked over, and to 
have things placed upon them, round or under which dirt 
and moisture can collect. On account of its extreme soft- 
ness, lead, unless very thick, is easily damaged by traffic ; 
and zinc, although harder, is brittle, and is also easily 
corroded by foreign matter ; and both, as already mentioned, 
are exceedingly liable to buckles and cracks. Copper, on the 



106 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



other hand, is so tough that it is practically uninjured by 
traffic and little liable to corrosion. It should, however, 
be laid with wood rolls and welted caps, and not according 
to the old method of stand-up welts. 

For sloping roofs and towers or spires the great weight 



Fig-. 198.™ Lap Joint. 



Fig. 199.— Plain Soldered Joint. 



of lead is much against its use. In such positions lead has 
a habit of crawling down, as it is called, and this is a 
very destructive process and greatly shortens its useful- 
ness. It is said that the lead on the roof of Bristol 
Cathedral crawled down as much as 18 in. in two years. 
The extreme softness of lead makes it also unfit for orna- 
mental work. It is always necessary, when lead is being 
used, that the wood should first be formed into the shapes, 
and the lead dressed closely over these ; on account of 
their stiffness zinc and copper do not require the mouldings 
and ornaments to be formed in the wood, but are 
sufficiently supported by a rough wood core. 

Lead has been so very largely used for roofs for many 
hundreds of years, that it is unnecessary to quote instances 
as to its lasting power when propeirly laid on flat roofs. 
With regard to its weight, it is found that when allow- 
ance has been made for the necessary rolls and laps, the 
lead necessary to cover a square of 100 ft. weighs rather 
more than the slates which would be necessary to cover 
the same area, and about half as much as plain tiles. 




Fig. 200.— Single or Xail Welt. 



Fij?. 201.— Double Welt. 



The term " workableness ;; must be understood to mean 
the possibility of being turned up with moderately sharp 
angles and twisted over into welts. Although lead is so 
soft, yet, on account of its great thickness, it cannot be 
easily welted, and requires large rolls. On the other 



LEADWO&R ON ROOFS. 



107 



hand, its weight and softness, incline it to lie close even 
without joints' — only then, of course, it is easily displaced. 
As a fireproof material, copper is undoubtedly better 
than lead or zinc. As already stated, lead melts at 617° 
F., and therefore in a fire it soon pours down in a terrible 





Fig 202.— Welted Edge of 
Lead Flat. 



Fig. 203.— Secret Tack to Edge 
of Lead Flat. 



stream, more dangerous than even falling timbers or 
bricks. Zinc melts at 800° F., and blazes brightly if thrown 
into an ordinary coal fire. Copper requires a temperature 
of 2,143° F. to fuse it, and retains its shape even at white 
heat. 

Another property required in a roof covering is in- 
sonorousness. Here lead has the immense advantage of 
its exceeding softness, and the same quality of softness 




Fig. 204.— Solid Wood Roll. 



Fig. 205.— Hollow Roll. 



makes it a non-conductor of heat. Lead has the advantage 
over copper of making much less noise in a driving rain or 
a hailstorm, but copper has perhaps still greater advantages 
over lead, being only about one-sixth the weight, being 
almost absolutely fireproof, requiring very little support 



108 



PEAGTIGAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



in ornamental work, having only a little more than half 
the expansiveness under heat, and, consequently, requiring 
fewer drips. To these advantages may be added its 



Ouercloak 




Fig-. 206.— Seam Roll Ready for Folding. 

capacity of being easily welted, and, finally, the beautiful 
colour which it assumes after a few years of exposure to a 
damp atmosphere. 



on of Ridge 
Roll, 




08. — Section of Secret 
Hip Roll, 



Fig. 207.— Section of Ridge Roll. 



The weights of sheet lead are varied according to the 
class of work, and may be graded as follows :— 





Pounds per sq. ft 


Cistern bottoms 


6 


8 10 


jj sides 


5 


7 8 


Flats 


6 


7 8 


Gutters 


6 


7 8 


Valley gutters 


6 


7 8 


Ridge 


5 


6 7 


Hips 


5 


6 7 


Flashings 


4 


5 6 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



109 



The methods of jointing sheet lead are as follows: — 
First, there is the simple lap joint (Fig. 198), which is from 
2 in. to 6 in. wide according to circumstances. The lapped 




Fig. 209.— Square Gutter Drip. Fig. 210.— Splayed Gutter Drip. 

parts should be copper nailed, and the joint is suitable 
only for steep slopes and vertical sides. 





Fig. 211. Fig. 212. 

Fig.'211.—Hollownose Drip. Fig. 212.— -Bottlenose Drips. 

The seam or plain soldered joint (Fig. 199) is used for 
the same purposes as the lap joint. 



I 



Fig. 213.— Welted Drip. 




Fig. 214.— Roll End and Drip. 



The simplest form of welt joint is illustrated by Fig. 
200 ; it is known as the single welt or nail welt. A double 
welt is gliown by Fig. 201. Fig. 202 illustrates in section 



110 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK, 



the welted edge of a lead flat; Fig. 203 is similar, but 
shows a secret tack, 

Where the part to be covered is exposed to the weather, 
and is wider than one sheet of lead will cover, it is usual 
to form a roll between the sheets, laid with a fall of 1| in. 




Fig-. 215.— Roll with Water Groove. 

in 10 ft., longitudinally. The roll may be solid, as Fig. 
204, which is the method adopted for hips and rolls in 
general, but on flats they may be hollow, as Fig. 205. A 
section of a seam roll ready for folding is given by Fig. 
206, which shows it to be made up of a lead overcloak and 
undercloak and a copper tack or strip. Sections of a ridge 
roll and of a secret hip roll are given by Figs. 207 and 208 
respectively. 

At the ends of lead sheets, across the current, it is usual 
to form a "drip," as in Figs. 209 to 214. Fig. 209 is a 




Fig. 216.— Elevation of Taurus or Curb Roll. 

view and section of a square gutter drip, and Fig. 210 of 
a splayed drip— a fillet occupies the angle. A " hollow-nose 
drip" is shown by Fig. 211. A " bottle-nose drip" is so 
called when the boarding carrying the upper sheet of lead 
projects over the bearer, the lower sheet of lead being 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



Ill 



stopped at the under side of the projection and the upper 
sheet dressed down over the projection and the upper edge 




Fig. 217. 

Fig. 218. 
Fig's. 217 and 218.— Sections of Taurus or Curb Roll. 




of lower sheet, as at A (Fig. 212). At b is shown the im- 
proved bottle-nose drip. A welted drip is represented by 
Fig. 213, whilst Fig. 214 is a view of a roll end and drip on 
a lead flat, and Fig. 215 is a sectional view of lead rolls 
showing a water-groove at y to prevent capillarity. 




Fig. 219.— Seam Roll with Bossed Ends. 



A taurus, torus or curb roll, is shown in Figs. 216 to 218. 
Views of a seam roll and finished roll with bossed ends 



112 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK 



are given by Figs. 219 and 220, a section on the line J k 
(Fig. 219) being presented by Fig. 221. 

A raglet is a narrow groove, about 1 in. deep, cut in 
masonry to receive the top edge of an apron flashing, as in 
Fig. 222. When the raglet occurs in the top of a blocking 




Fig. 220.— Finished Roll with Bossed Ends. 

course, the process of " burning-in " is adopted to hold the 
sheet lead, that is, an under-cut groove is formed for the 
raglet, and molten lead run in, as in Fig. 223. 

When sheet lead is laid on with more slope than is just 
necessary to permit the water to run off, it is held by 
" soldered dots," as in Fig. 224. The boarding is counter- 
sunk, the lead dressed down into the depression, and a 
screw put through, solder being run over the screw to keep 
the wet out. 

The chief work of a plumber on a roof is usually con- 




Fiff. 221.— Section of Seam Roll. 



nected with flats and gutters which have to be covered 
with sheet lead ; but before lead-laying is begun, the 
joiner's work should receive special attention. The boards 
forming the floor for the lead should be well seasoned, and 
tongued and grooved ; a.nd they should rest upon a firm 



LEABWOEK ON HOOFS. 



113 



and solid bed so that they will not spring when walked 
upon. The length of the boards should be in the direction 
of the fall, which ought never to be less than \ in. to the 
foot, the surface should be free from projections and irregu- 
larities, and the fixing nails should be punched well into 




Fig. 222. — Raglet in Stone Parapet. 




Fig-. 228.— Raglet in Top of 
Blocking Course. 



the board. The drips should not be less than 2 in. high, 
with the top edge rebated to allow the undercloak lead to 
be flush with the board. The length from drip to drip should 
not exceed 10 ft., and the width between rolls not more 
than 2 ft. 9 in. The gutter should be wide enough to walk 




Fiff. 221.— Soldered Dot. 



Fig. 225.— Gutter Cesspool. 

in at its narrowest point ; and, if over 3 ft. wide, a roll 
should be fixed down the middle. 

The expanding and contracting influences of heat and 
cold must be taken into account, and if the lead is laid in 
too great lengths, or in too wide bays, it will soon break 

H 



Ill 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



or crack ; but if laid according to the directions just given, 
the drips and laps will allow sufficient freedom of move- 
ment to counteract this tendency. 

The point at which lead laying should be started is the 




Figs. 226 and 227. — Gutter Cesspools with Down-pipes Respectively 
Owtside and Inside External Wall. Fig. 228.— Cesspool with Over- 
flow Pipe. 



LEADWOltK OX ROOFS. 



115 



cesspool, which is a box fixed at the lowest point in the 
gutter, and from which the rainwater pipe descends. The 



Fig-. 229.— Drip and Cesspool with Socket Pipe 
through End Wall. 




Bird's-mouth Joint 

Fig-. 230.— Parapet Box Gutter. 



116 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



lead to line this can be cut and soldered on the bench 
to the size and shape required. When cutting out the lead 
for lining a cesspool, it is usual to allow 6 in. above the 
gutter line on the wall side, and 9 in. above the gutter line 
on the roof side ; but, before this lining is put in, a hole 




Fig. 231.— Box Gutter. 



Fig. 232.— Drip. 



must be cut in the bottom of the cesspool and a lead nozzle 
inserted, about 6 in. long, and of the same diameter as the 
rainwater pipe, as is shown at a (Fig. 225), and the top 
edge dressed back and nailed with copper tacks to the 
wood. The lining is then put in ; and it should fit closely 
to the wood on each side, and rest solidly on the bottom. 
Tap the bottom lightly with the mallet, and trace the 
position of the nozzle ; then make a small hole in the centre 
and dress the lead down into the nozzle, using care to pre- 



Fig. 233.— Setting out Lead for Gutter. Fig. 234.— Scribing Gauge. 

vent tearing of the lead in working. The top edges of the 
lead cesspool are to be turned over on to the gutter board 
and secured by nailing. To avoid the risk of flooding due 
to stoppage caused by leaves, etc., an overflow pipe could be 
inserted in the side of the cesspool and carried to some posi- 
tion where an overflow could be immediately observed. 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



117 



It must be pointed out that the right method of doing 
this work is a matter of rather keen controversy. Fig. 
226 shows an ordinary cesspool in a box or parapet gutter 
with the down-pipe arranged to be on the outside of an 
external wall ; Fig. 227 shows a very similar construction 
which can be adopted when the pipe is compulsorily 
carried down inside the wall. The essential point of differ- 
ence between these methods and the one shown by Fig. 
225 is that here wiped soldered joints are employed at a a, 
whereas in Fig. 225 the top of the pipe is merely dressed 




Fig. 235. — Section of Parapet Gutter. 



back and nailed under the lining. The wiped joints must 
be made in position. Figs. 226 to 228 show better methods. 
Overflow pipes should be fitted to the cesspools shown in 
Figs. 226 and 227. Such a pipe is indicated by a in Fig. 
228 ; its purpose is to carry off water (should the cesspool 
become stopped) before the water can penetrate under the 
drips and lining. b indicates a wire guard to prevent 
leaves, etc., passing into the down-pipe and blocking it. 

Sectional views of other arrangements of cesspool and 
socket pipe are presented by Figs. 229 and 230. 

When measuring the lead for a box gutter (Fig. 231), 
allow 2 in. beyond the edge of the moulding, and 3 in. to 



118 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



lap over the springing fillet b. When the lead is cut, lay 
three or four boards, edge to edge, on the feet of the spars, 
upon which the lead can be rolled out. Set out the bottom 
and sides, and, with the chalk line, strike the lines which 




Fi£. 236. — Parapet Gutter with Double Springing. 

represent the two angles ; then take a piece of scantling, 
about the same length as the lead, and place it with one of 
its edges just on the chalk line, and pull the lead up at 
right angles. Do the same with the other side, when the 
lead will look like a square trough. The drip (Fig. 232) 
must now be bossed up. For a 2-in. drip, set out a line 
parallel with, and 4 in. distance from, the end of the lead. 
This cuts the other two lines at right angles, and forms 




Fig. 237.— Parapet Gutter for Tiled Roof. 

three sides of a square — Fig. 233 explains this — then, with 
the chase-wedge and mallet, set in the angles, turn the 
lead up, and boss the two corners 2 in. high ; drop the lead 
into its place, set in the corners and angles with the flat 



LEADWORK OX HOOFS. 



119 



dresser and mallet, and turn down the laps at each end 
as shown by Fig. 232. The next length can be treated 
similarly, and so on until the gutter is finished. 




Fio-. 238.— Valley Gutter. 

To make a good finish on the front of the cornice, the 
projecting lead should be gauged and the surplus cut off. 
This is done with a tool similar to that shown in Fig. 234, 
which can be easily made out of a piece of wood, the 
scriber being driven through, say, lj in. from the end. 
Run the gauge along the projecting edge of the lead with 
one of its legs pressed close to the moulding, and the 
scriber will then mark the line where the lead has to be 
cut. When this is done, dress the remainder down over 
the cornice, and by means of secret tacks secure the free 
edge against being lifted by a high wind. 




Fig. 239.— Valley G-utter. 



For a parapet gutter (Figs. 226, 228, and 230, pp. 114 and 
115), the lead must be turned up the wall, 6 in. high, and 
capped with a separate flashing. 



120 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



Gutters are of many kinds, the chief of which will now 
be illustrated. Some parapet box gutters have already 
been referred to ; Fig. 235 shows another, with the lead 
flashing "burned in " to stone blocking, or secured as at 



lead Dowell 



Dowel! 




Fig. 240. — Section of Cornice Gutter. 

x. The parapet gutter shown by Fig. 236 has a wood 
fillet to protect the lead from rough brickwork ; and there 
is a double springing on the roof to prevent the lead 
buckling. Fig. 237 represents the section of a gutter with 
extra thick springing for a tiled roof. Two different 





Fig. 241.— Upright Gutter. 



Fig-. 242.— Secret Gutter. 



sections of valley gutters are given by Figs. 238 and 239, 
and a cornice gutter is shown by Fig. 240. An upright 
gutter or a gutter on the slope of a Mansard roof is illus- 
trated by Fig. 241, and Figs. 242 and 243 show alternate 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



121 



methods of constructing a secret gutter next to the wall 
end of a slated or tiled roof. Secret hip gutters are shown 
in section by Figs. 244 and 245. 

In determining the size of a roof gutter, other details 




213.— Secret Gutter. 



besides rainfall have to be considered. The gutter is used 
for walking in when anything is required to be done to the 
roof, and it should be so wide that the workmen will not 
tread on the slates or tiles and so break or injure them. 
The general rule is for plain rainwater gutters to be 12 in. 
wide in the sole at the narrowest part. A gutter, say, 43 ft. 
long could not be cut out of one piece of lead. For con- 
venience of laying the lead, and to allow for expansion and 




Fig. 244. Fig. 245. 

Figs. 244 and 245.— Secret Hip Gutters. 



contraction, the gutter should be divided into five lengths, 
which would necessitate four drips, and to resist capil- 
larity the latter should not be less than 2 in. deep. (The 
illustrations given in this chapter should be referred to for 



122 TB ACTIO AL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

the construction.) Assuming that the gutter falls 1^ in. 
between the drips, the width of the gutter sole at the high- 
est end will be 4 ft. 11 in., and at the other and narrower 
end, 1 ft. With such a gutter there would be little risk 
from overflow during a storm, especially if the outlet end 
is continued through the wall to empty into the head of 
a down-pipe. Fo>r calculating the water that falls on the 
roof, first find the area of that portion emptying into the 
centre gutter; assume it to be 32 ft. by 43 ft., o.r 1,376 
super ft. If, during a rain-storm, \ in. of water falls in ten 
minutes, 1,376 ^ (2 x 12) = 57^ cub. ft. This, taken as 1 
in. deep by width of gutter, or 1 ft. = 688 lin. ft. Then, 
688 ft. by 1 in. deep, runs out of the gutter in ten minutes, 
or 68*8 ft. in one minute, or 1*146 ft. in one second. The 
gutter having a fall of 1^ in. in 9 ft., or one in seventy-two, 
the water would attain a velocity of about 3 ft. per second. 
This velocity would cause the water to be of less depth 

than 1 in. To find the actual depth, VU6 * l ln ' = -382, 

or a little over f in. This shows the gutter to be of ample 
size. A 3-in. down-pipe, with hopper head, would be 
quite large enough. The rainfall of \ in. in ten minutes is 
extraordinary, but it has actually occurred. 

Water grooves to prevent water being drawn in by 
capillary attraction are necessary in all laps or passings 
where these are on either flat or sloping roofs, but not 
when the laps and passings are in upright positions. 
Fig. 246 is a plan of a drip in a box gutter, showing the 
lap on the curb of the roof ; Fig. 247 is an elevation of the 
lap on the curb; Fig. 248 is a section of the curb. Fig. 
249 is a section on A b of the water groove, drawn to a 
larger scale. The water groove is shown by double dotted 
lines in Figs. 246 and 247, and by firm lines on Fig. 248. 

The proper way of laying lead valley gutters (Figs. 238 
and 239, p. 119) is as follows : — Have the bottom of the 
gutter covered with good boards, 4 in. wide, planed to an 
even surface, the grain of the wood arranged parallel 
with the length of the gutter. Arrange a drip of 2 in. 
every 7 ft., and allow a fall of 1 in. between drips. Fix 
the tilting fillets on each side 3 in. from the sole of the 
gutter, and allow the lead to lie 6 in. under the slates. 

The laying of a lead flat will now be discussed. For 



LEAD WORK OX ROOFS. 



123 



a proper lead flat, the boards should be laid to a fall of 
about 2 in. in 10 ft., with their grain in the direction of 
the current, and they should be quite free from bumps and 
irregularities. If too much fall is given, the lead will 
" crawl ;; down, unless special means are taken to prevent 
it. Drips should not be less than 2 in. deep. Rolls should 
be 2 in. thick, and fixed 2 ft. 9 in. apart. The lead should 
be "soft ;; milled or cast, of equal thickness, and weigh 
not less than 7 lb. per square foot, and be turned up 6 in. 




Fig-. 247. — Elevation of Lap on Curb. 




Fig. 218.— Section of Curb. 





Fig. 2ly. — Section showing- 
Fig. 246.— Plan of Drip in Box Gutter. Water Groove. 



against walls. Copper nails lj in. long should be used fo. 
nailing the lead where necessary, but the fixings should 
not be too rigid, or so as to resist expansion of the lead. 
Flashings should be of 5-lb. lead, turned into walls not 
less than lj in., hang 3 in. over the stand-up lead on flat, 
and be fixed with lead wedges. The free edges of flash- 
ings should be secured by means of 6-lb. lead " tacks " 3 in. 
wide. Copper tacks are sometimes used, and are very 
good, but with zinc tacks a voltaic action sets up between 
the metals, and the zinc is soon destroyed. 



124 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The finishing off of rolls and drips on a lead flat is a 
subject of misunderstanding to many plumbers, who think 
that the overcloak should finish as at a (Figs. 250 and 251), 
whereas the correct method is that shown by c (Fig. 252) 
and D (Fig. 251). By continuing the overcloak about 1 in, 
to lj in. on to the flat, the edge of the lead is stiffened. 





Fig. 250. Fig, 251. 

Figs. 250 and 251. — Overcloak Wrongly Finished. 

Without this the edge opens away from the roll, especially 
when careless people step upon it, and wind and rain get 
beneath. In practice, it is found that water will not rise 
so high, by capillarity, with the lay-piece left on. The 
fold round the roll acts as a fixing by its grip, and, in 
addition to its usefulness, the work looks much better. 
When the overcloak lead is cut short as shown at a (see 
Figs. 250 and 251) the lead does not fit tightly to the roll 




Fig. 252. — Overcloak Correctly Finished. 

or drip, and there is nothing to prevent the lead rising 
when expanded by heat, and the free edge is also liable to 
be blown up by a high wind, or to be pressed outwards, 
as shown by dotted lines at b b, by anyone stepping on 
the rolls or on the edges of the drips. When the free 
edges are thus opened, water, when rain is falling, will 



LEAD WORK ON HOOFS. 



125 



splash beneath and thus wet and eventually rot the wood- 
work. Cutting the head short does not prevent the water 
rising by capillary action, but really shortens the distance 
the water has to travel to reach the woodwork. Lead 



*»,««„,'"(, 


<<"<«'"""<< 


i 




""<""'«-<. ^ 


" ; 


+-27 - 


«- 2 7 - 


1 

1 


*-1 J 7*-> 




i 
1 
I 


«j$ 


76-- r-JSH 


*-■ %& — 


si 

- - - -I 



Fig. 253.— Setting Out Lead Flat. 

should be fixed to allow for expansion, or it will break ; 
and the lead overcloak should grip the roll tightly enough 
to form a fixing, and yet allow for expansion. 

Fig 253 shows how to set out a flat, 16 ft. by 8 ft., hav- 
ing bays, gutter, and cesspool ; 7-lb. lead should be used for 
the flat, gutter, and cesspool, and 5-lb. for the flashings. 
Dimensions of flat : — 

16' 0" Total length of flat. 

Turn up against end walls. 
For the rolls, allowing 3j" under-cloak, and 
6i" over-cloak — 1" for base of each roll. 
= Total length of lead on flat only. 

Length of bays. 
Turn up against top wall. 
Turn down into gutter. 
7 10 = Total length of lead on flat only. 
Dimensions of gutter : — 

16' 0" Total length, including cesspool. 
8 Allowance for lap at one drip. 
4 Do. for \ lap at cesspool drip. 

2/ 6" = 1 Turn up at end walls. 

18 = Total length of gutter lead. 



2/ 6" = 


= 10 


5/ 9" : 


= 39 




20 9 




7 




6 




4 



126 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

1 ' 0" Width of gutter bottom. 
6 Turn up against wall. 
*0 7 Do. do. flat drip. 



2 1 = Total average width of gutter lead. 

2" drip. 

2 fall. 

2 drip. 

2 fall. 



8 deep at lower end. 
2 do. at highest end. 

10 -f- 2 = 5" average depth. 

+ 2 for turning on flat. 

7" carried to *. 

For the extra depth of cesspool, which is 6" deep, there is : — 
4/ 1' 0" = 4' 0" = length of sides, 
x 6 = depth. 
Then 20' 9" 
7 10 



18' 


0" 


2 


1 


36 
1 



6 



145 3 
17 3 6" 

162 6 6 lead on flat. 37 6 lead in gutter. 

4' 0" ~™ 

6 

2 extra lead in cesspool. 

And 162' 6" 6'" flat lead 

37 6 gutter lead 
2 cesspool lead 

202 6 = Total area of 7-lb. lead. 



And 202' 0" 6"' 

7 weight of 1 ft. of lead 

1414 3 6 = weight in lbs. of the whole ; 
or 1414 & T | ¥ , or 1414- 2 7 3 lbs. 



LEADWOBK QN ROOFS. 127 

Cwt. qr. lb. 

112) 1414(12 2 14^3 = Weight of lead on flat. 
112 

294 

224 

28) 70 
56 

14 

Flashing :— 

16' 0" Length of fiat 

8 width „ 

16 length „ 

8 width „ 

0/ 4" =*'• 2 8 add for laps or passings. 

50 8 Total length of flashing 
6 average width of „ 



25 4 Total dimension for flashings 
5 weight of 1 ft. 



126 8 Total weight of flashing in lbs. 

Cwt. qr. lb. 

112) 126§ (1 14| = Total weight of flashings. 
112 

28) 14 

Assuming the tacks to flashings are 6" x 3" and 3' 6" apart 
then 48' 0" -r- by 3' 6" = 14. 
Then 0' 6" 
3 



14/0 1 6'" = 1' 9" 0'" 



And 1' 9" 0" 

5 lb. lead. 



8 9 or 9 lb. nearly as total weight of tacks. 



128 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



Cwt. qr. lb. 

And 12 2 14 ¥ V flat 

1 14f flashing 

9 tacks 



13 3 9{& = Total weight of lead on flat. 




Soaker 



Fig*. 254. — Lead Soakers on Tiled Roof. 

For raising the lead shown above to a height of, say, 
50 ft. , certain tackle would be necessary. 

The heaviest piece of lead being 7' 0" + 6" + 4" = 
I' 10" x 2' 7" + 10" + 3" = 3' 8", and 

r io" 

3 H 

23 6 

5 2 8"' 



28 8 8 superficial 

7 weight of 1 ft. 

201 8 or a little over If cwt. 
For hoisting this a pair of " shear legs" or two short 



LEADWORK ON ROOFS. 



121) 



stout poles crossed and lashed together about 2 ft. below 
their top ends, the bottom ends being 8 or 10 ft. apart, 
the whole stood upright on the roof, and having a "jib," 
or stout pole with one end lying between the top ends of 
the legs, and projecting a few feet, and the other end 
lashed down or weighted, are necessary. On the outer or 
projecting end of the jib lash a " block " or wheel with a 
groove in the edge, and around this pass a strong 
rope with both ends reaching the ground, and having a 
few feet to spare in length. The roll of lead being lashed 
by one end of the rope, the men pull at the other and hoist 
the lead to the roof. If two men are not equal to the task, 
and a third one cannot find room to grip the rope with 




Fig. 255.— Section of Hip with Soakers. 

effect, he can sometimes stand on a stage of the scaffolding 
above, but it is much safer to fix a "snatch-block" at the 
ground level, pass the rope through that, and the men, 
to any number, then exert a longitudinal pull. A " crab " 
or "winch" hoist can be used; but this, although more 
powerful, is not so quick as the hand-wheel. A method 
that could be employed by one man only would be to use 
a pair of pulley blocks with a |-in. rope and suspend these 
from the jib which projects from the shear-legs on the roof 
or flat. 

Soakers and flashings are usually made of either sheet 
lead or sheet zinc, and are suitable for either slated or tiled 
roofs. An alternative, which is a little cheaper, although 
not so good, is to use either lead or zinc stepped flashings. 
Mortar or cement fillets always make a very poor job. 

Lead soakers on a tiled roof are illustrated by Fig. 
i 



130 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



254. Serving the same purpose, but in a different position, 
is the hip soaker (Fig. 255). If a roof is covered with 
plain tiles of the usual size (11 in. by 7 in.), the soakers 
would be cut out the same width and the same length, les $ 
the amount of margin or exposed portion of a tile when 
finished, and plus 1 in. for turning the top end down for 
fixing over the head of the tile. If the latter show 4-in. 




Fig*. 256. — Ridge End and Step Flashing, 



margins, they will have 3-in. laps, and the length of each 
soaker should be 4 in. + 3 in. + 1 in. = 8 in. The lead, 
when cut out, should be folded lengthwise down the centre, 
1 in. on the top edge of the flat, or roof, part, turned 
down to hang on the last laid tile, and then placed in 
position as shown in Fig. 254. The next tile is then laid, 
then another soaker, and so on up to the ridge. It is 
usual to fix a stepped cover flashing over the stand-up 
parts of the soakers (see Fig. 254), but in some cases the 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



131 



latter are cut 3 in. wider, so as to have 6|-in. stand-up, 
and the steps cut out of the soakers and turned and 
wedged to the wall, instead of having cover flashings. It 
will be understood that in Fig. 254 part of the cover flash- 
ing and part of the tiling is shown cut away to reveal the 
shape of the lead soaker beneath. 

A view of a ridge end with step flashings is given by 
Fig. 256. Step flashings are also shown above the soakers 



jV^rTv 




Fig. 257. — Chimney Flashing. 



in Fig. 254. Chimney flashings are illustrated by Figs. 
257 and 258, the latter figure showing also a break. 

Information on marking off, cutting out and fixing lead 
step flashings will now be given. The lead should be cut 
out 13 in. wide, 6 in. of it to lie on the roof and 7 in. to 
stand against the wall. The folding line and water line 
should be marked with chalk, and the lead folded at right 
angles on the folding line. As roofs vary in their pitch 
or angle of slope, and as the joints of the brickwork are 
not always at exactly the same distance apart, the lead, 
after folding, should be laid in the position it is to 
occupy, and, with the help of a wooden straightedge, the 



132 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



bottom edge of the joint in each course should be marked 
with a pointed piece of chalk as far as the water line, 
as shown at a A (Fig. 259). The lead should then be laid 
on a board on the wall side, and the lines b b marked, 
one end of this line being 1 in. from the edge of the lead, 
' and the other end cutting the joint line on the water line. 
Outside the lines a a, mark those shown at c c 1 in. dis- 
tant. These lines indicate the place of folding for turning 
into the brickwork. 




Fig. 258. — Chimney Break. 



The folding is done with a step turner, which is an 
iron tool like a double-bladed chipping knife. A tempor- 
ary tool can be made out of a piece of lj-in. hardwood, 
with one end cut to a bevel, and having a saw-cut equal 
to the thickness of the lead on one edge. In Fig. 259, 
which is drawn for a roof having a slope of 45°, the shaded 
parts are those which are to be cut away. 

The placing of the folded lead in position for marking 
out the steps is perhaps better shown by Fig. 260, in 
which the dotted lines b indicate the joint lines of the 
brickwork, c denotes the position of a lead or oak wedge 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



133 



when finally fixing the step flashing, and d is the lead 
which covers the slating and which is clipped by lead 
straps, 3 in. wide, secured to the brickwork about 3 ft. 
6 in. apart. 




Fig-. 259. — Cutting out Stepped Flashing. 

Burning lead flashings to stone or terra-cotta walls is 
done by filling the grooves with molten lead (see Fig. 235, 
p. 117). The best way of running the lead is shown in Fig. 




Fig". 260.— Method of Marking Stepped Flashing. 



261, in which A represents a strip of dry deal, about 2 ft 
long by 2^ in. or 3 in. wide and 1\ in. thick, placed over 
the joint and held in position by struts against an oppo- 
site wall, or by a weight, as shown in the illustration. 



134 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The groove at the ends of the running stick is plugged 
with clap or common putty to prevent the lead escaping. 
The lead is poured through the two outer holes, shown 
on the top edge of the stick, the centre hole being left 
open for air to escape. The lead should not be poured too 
hot. When the pouring is finished and the lead has set, 
the stick is removed, and the face of the run lead is cross- 
hatched, about 1 in. apart, with a blunt hand chisel, as 
shown at b. The lead should not be staved or caulked in, 
as the stone at the edges of the groove would be chipped 
or stunned and eventually crumble or flake away. 

A section of the groove and flashing is shown in Fig. 




Fig. 261. — Burning in Lead Flashings. 



262 ; A indicates the flashing and b the stick. It will be 
noted that the groove is slightly wider at the back than 
at the front. 

Before describing a typical roof job, the essential re- 
quirements of such work may be stated. In good roofing 
work, all sheet lead is of the best quality, and made of 
pure soft pig. The nails are of copper, with flat heads. 
The gutters, cesspools, and parts of roof where there is 
any foot traffic, are covered with lead weighing 8 lb. per 
superficial foot. Excepting as above, all flats, dormer 
tops, valleys, chimney and skylight gutters are covered 
with 7-lb. lead. All hips, ridges, and dormer-cheeks ar<3 
covered with 6-lb. lead. Cover and stepped flashings and 



LEAD WORK OX ROOFS. 



135 



aprons are of 5-lb. lead, and soakers 4-lb. lead. The whole 
of the lead work must be properly bossed to suit the 
various positions. With the exception of soldered angles 
to the cesspools and the joints to the socket-pipes, no 
soldering whatever may be done to the lead work on roofs. 
The lead is to be fixed to keep it in position, but in such 
a manner as to allow for expansion. To prevent the lead 




Fig. 262.— Section of Flashing* and Stick. 



on flats and gutters "crawling" down, they should not 
have a fall exceeding 2 in. in 10 ft. 

For covering a sloping roof exposed to the sun, cast 
sheet lead is usually considered to be the best, as in it the 
molecules of the metal are more free to move amongst 
themselves than is the case in milled sheet lead, and the 
lead is thus less liable to fracture by the alternate ex- 
pansions and contractions that take place. Fig. 263 shows 



136 



PRACTICAL PLUMB EPS 9 WORK. 



the pitch of a roof, and Fig. 264 is a plan on the slope of 
the roof showing the arrangement of the bays and pass- 
ings. The dotted lines in the passings show the positions 
of grooves made to prevent water passing between the laps 




Fig. 263.— Roof Outline. 

by capillary attraction. Wood roll is the better form of 
roll where any foot traffic passes over the roof, but the 
hollow roll allows more freedom for movement of the 
metal by expansion. As capillary action causes water to 
rise between the laps of lead to a vertical height of about 



Fig-. 264.— Plan of Roof 
Slope. 




Fig. 26c. — Section Showing Lap. 



Fig. 266.— Section Showing- 
Water Groove. 



3 in., the length of the lap should be about equal to this, 
as shown in section by Fig. 265. Fig. 266 represents a 
section at right angles to the water grooves indicated by 
dotted lines in Fig. 264. 



LEADWOBK ON ROOFS. 137 

Covering a ridge with lead is by no means a difficult 
operation if set about in a proper manner. Before the 
wood roll is fixed, straps of lead about 3 in. wide, and long 
enough to overlap the slating about 7 in. on each side, 




Fig. 267. — Lead for Covering Ridge. 

should be nailed to the ridge-plate. For a 2-in. roll the 
lead can be 7 ft. to 8 ft. long, and about 1 ft. 6 in. wide. 
In setting out, strike a chalk line down the centre of the 
lead, and on each side set off half the girth of the exposed 
portion of the roll, which can be found by bending a strip 
of lead round it ; the lead can then be turned up on these 
lines in the form of a trough (Fig. 267). If this, when 
placed on the top of the roll, is raised and dropped down 




Fig. 268.— Lead-covered Ridge. 

smartly, the sides will fall and cover the roll. After the 
lead is tightly dressed home to the sides of the roll, the 
straps are drawn up and turned over to clip the free edges 
of the wings, as shown in Fig. 268. 



138 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



The construction of a dormer window is clearly shown 
by Figs. 269 to 271. Fig. 272 illustrates a secret tack 




Fig. 269. — Dormer Window. 

soldered at the back of the cheek instead of employing 
a soldered dot as in Fig. 270 ; a second alternative is a 




Copper 
Washer 

Soldered Dot 



Fig. 270. — Section of Dormer 
Window on L M (Fig. 269). 



trmm 




Fig. 271. — Section of Dormer 
Cill on no (Fig. 269). 



piece of 2-in. lead pipe soldered at the back of the cheek 
lead and tafted (see Fig. 273). 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



139 



In covering a dormer window with sheet lead, the apron 
should be fixed before the window frame is put into its 
place, and then turned up inside and dressed to the sill. 
The cheeks should then be set up and dressed for 6 in. to 
lie on the slates, 1^ in. to be nailed into a rebate cut into 
the dormer top, and 2 in. or 3 in. to return on the face, to 




273. 



Fig-. 272.— Secret Soldered Tack. Fig-. 273.— Alternative to Soldered 
Tack. Fig-. 274.— Boof Doorway. 



which it is usually nailed, and a flat welt turned to cover 
the nail heads. If the cheeks are very large, they should 
be put on in two or more pieces, and vertical double welts 
turned. Soldered dots should not be used ; but if addi- 
tional fixings are necessary, secret tacks should be used, 
as shown in Fig. 272. The top of the dormer, if not too 
large, should be covered with one piece of lead, and the 
front and sides dressed round a nosing on the edges for 
preventing a high wind blowing it off. The lead at the 
back should be continued up the roof 9 in., and dressed 
to a tilting piece or springing, for the eaves course of 



140 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. 



slates to rest upon. In some cases it is necessary to fix 
a lead weathering on the front of the dormer for prevent- 
ing rainwater getting in at the top of the sashes. All free 
edges of lead should have tacks for preventing wind get- 





Fig. 275>. 

Fig. 276. 
Figs. 275 and 276.— Sections of Roof Doorway on PQ and ks (Fig. 274). 

ting beneath. For first-class work the apron should be 
6-lb., the cheeks 7-lb., and the top 8-lb. lead. For ordinary 
work the above weights are 1 lb. less all round. 

Details of a doorway in a roof are presented by Figs. 
274 to 278. 

Hatches are openings in the roof to give convenient 
access to the outside for the purpose of repairs, etc. They 
are sometimes made through flats, and sometimes through 
the slates of the roof, the hatch shown by Fig. 279 bemg of 





Fig. 277.— Section of Roof 
Doorway on T u (Fig. 274). 



Fig. 278. — Section of Doorway 

cm. 



the latter kind. A convenient size is 2 ft. 6 in. by 18 in., in- 
side measurement, the framework being 3 in. clear of the 
roof and 1^ in. thick. A gutter-board, tilting fillet, etc., 
should be fixed at the upper end of the curb. The lead re- 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



141 



quired will be as follows : Bottom a (Fig. 279), length, 1 ft. 
6 in. + lj in. + li in. + 6 in. + 6 in. =2 ft. 9 in. ; width, 6 in. 
+ 3 in. + li in. = 10J in. Sides b b (Fig. 279), length, 2 ft. 
6 in. + 1^ in. + 1^ in. + 6 in. +1 in. (this latter for tack 
at c, Fig. 279) = 3 ft. 4 in. ; width, 6 in. + 3 in. + l\ in. 
= 10| in. As the top piece d bosses the break, for 
which 1\ in. is allowed on each side, the length will be 1 ft 
6 in. + l\ in. + 1^ in. + 1\ in. + 7^ in. = 3 ft., and the 
width 1 ft. 8 in. The total required for the frame will there- 
fore be one piece 2 ft. 9 in. by 10^ in., two pieces 3 ft. 4 in. 




Fig. 279. — Lead-covered Hatch. 



by 10^ in., and one piece 3 ft. by 1 ft. 8 in., 7-lb. lead being 
used for the gutter, and 5 lb. for the sides and bottom. 
To find the weight of the lead, add all the lengths together, 
and multiply by the width and weight of lead. 

Soakers can be used against the sides of the hatch. The 
bottom piece of lead should be turned up 4^ in., the top 
edge being dressed on the woodwork, and nailed. Re- 
turn the angle, and cut off, as shown by dotted lines (Fig. 
279). The side pieces can be turned up for a similar dis- 
tance at the bottom, and nailed. The small breaks at the 
lower corners are bossed, care being taken not to thin the 



m 



FRAG TIG AL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. 



lead too much, or a bird's-eye will result. The art of lead 
bossing consists in making the lead of even thickness 




Fig. 280.— Section through 
Gutter. 




Fig. 281.— Finished Hatch Cover. 



throughout, and not thick in one place and thin in another. 
The wood tools used for lead laying should be carefully 




Fig. 283. 
Figs. 282 and 283. — Plan and Section of Trap-door in Lead Flat. 

looked after, so that they may not become damaged, as a 
piece of lead cannot be finished neatly if the tools used are 



LEAD WORK ON HOOFS. 



143 



chipped and faulty. The bossings when finished should not 
show any tool mark. Draw the lead required for the 
breaks from the outside margins or edges. Drive with quick, 
swinging blows to keep the lead warm, and finish off 
with a rather dull dresser. Cut off as shown, and turn the 




Fig. 284.— Plan of Lead Flat and Skylight. 

1 in. left at c (Fig. 279) underneath to hold the corners 
together. 

The gutter D (Fig. 279) can now be turned up 4^ in. on 
one side and 9 in. on the other, as seen in Fig. 280, which 
is a section through the gutter. Turn the top edge over, 
and secure it with nails ; and also dress the lead over the 
tiling fillet F (Fig. 280). The breaks at the two ends of the 



144 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WOliK. 



gutter are worked down. Draw the lead for them from 
the surplus 1^ in. left at each end of the gutter. Boss in 
a similar manner as the bottom angles, and finish with a 
dresser and trim up. After the framework is finished, the 
slater can complete the slating. 

The cover (Fig. 281) is 2 ft. 11^ in. by 1 ft. Hi in. by l\ 
in., and is made of 1-in. stuff. The length of the lead will 
be 2 ft. 11| in. + l| in. + l\ in. + 1 in. + 1 in. = 3 ft, 4^ in., 
and the breadth 1 ft. 11^ in. + 1^ in. + 



li in. 



+ 1 m. + 




Sfatei 



Fig. 285. Fig. 286. 

Figs. 285 and 286.— Enlarged Detail of Skylight (see AB, Fig. 284). 



1 in. = 2 ft. 4| in. A piece of 7-lb. sheet lead 3 ft. 4^ in. by 

2 ft. 4^ in. will therefore be required. The weight of this 
would be 3 ft. 4£ in. + 2 ft. 4£ in. + 7 lb. =2 qr. 1\ lb. 
Set up 2j in. on all sides, and boss up the corners. After 
bossing, the wood frame is turned over inside the lead, 
and the bottom edge bossed over and nailed. The tools 
required for the work will be dressers, a bossing stick, 
and a bossing mallet. The method of bossing corners is 
fully described in connection with bossing up a lead tray 
in Chapter III. (pp. 32 to 34). A similar construction to 
the hatch just described is the trap-door (Figs. 282 and 283). 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS* 



145 



Details of the construction of a skylight over a lead flat 
are presented by Figs. 284 to 288. It will be instructive to 




Condensation 
Gutter 



Fig-. 287.— Section of Sky- 
light on E F (Fig. 284). 




Fig. 288.— Section of Skylight on 
G H (Fig. 234). 




Fig. 289.— Plan of Skylight on Slated Roof. 

compare these figures with Figs. 289 to 291, which illustrate 
a skylight erected on a slated roof. 

Fig. 292 is a scale drawing of a amall turret roof, and 
j 



146 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. 

below is described the method of covering such a roof with 
lead, the bays to have lf-in. seam rolls (with copper tacks) 
in the centre and at the angles. Before putting on the 
lead, the woodwork should be prepared by cutting off the 
sharp arrises of the hips and sinking a rebate on the dotted 




Condensation 
Gutter 

Fig. 290.— Section of Skylight on z A (Fig. 289). 

line a (Fig. 292) to a depth equal to the thickness of the 
lead. Aprons, one on each side, dressed into the rebate 
and secured with copper nails, should then be fixed, the 
ends of the aprons being worked round the angles, and 
tacks turned, as shown at B. In practice it would be a 
difficult matter to make a really smart job unless wood rolls 
were used ; however, a City Guilds question in Plumbers' 




Fig. 291.— Enlarged Section of Skylight on x Y (Fig. 289). 

Work (Honours) for the year 1899 specified seam rolls, and 
these will be considered here. 

The position of the rolls should be set out on the actual 
turret, the widths of the rolls, less one thickness of lead, 
being shown, and copper tacks 4 in. long by 3 in. wide, 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



147 



and about 18 in. apart, or three in the whole length, 
screwed on so as to come beneath the roll. These tacks are 
to be turned over the undercloak, a space being left at c 
as shown in Fig. 293, after the first bay has been placed in 
position. So as not to distress the lead, or reduce the 




Fig-. 292.— Side Elevation of Turret Roof. 



thickness in the angles, the lead should be set out the 
exact size as shown in Fig. 294, and the parts for the under- 
cloak and the overcloak turned and dressed down flat, and 
the corners partly worked to suit the bottom ends of the 
rolls. The bay is then placed in position, flapped to the 
hollow and round of the roof, and the sides worked upright, 
and then turned and folded to form the hollow rolls. 



143 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK 



Great pains should be taken when doing this, or the rolls 
will become full of bruises and tool marks, which cannot 
be taken out. Neither should the overcloak be turned too 
tightly, or the lead will be pulled up as shown by dotted 
lines at d (Fig. 295), and probably broken or torn if an 
endeavour is made to work it down to form an angle. 

For covering the apex, or ball, a circular piece of lead 
is to be cut out, partly worked on a horse, then placed in 
position and dressed down to lie about 4 in. on the roof. 
To protect the top ends of the rolls and keep them from 
being bruised they may be temporarily covered over with 




Fi#. 293.— Roll Before Folding. 



saddle pieces of thin sheet-iron or copper. Of the illustra 
tions, Figs. 292 and 294 are drawn to a scale of \ in. to 1 ft., 
and Figs. 293 and 295 are half full-size. 

For finding the true shape of the bays, one side of the 
contour of Fig. 292 is first divided into any number of equal 
spaces as from a to r inclusive, and from these points lines 
are projected across the figure. The dotted line inside the 
centre roll (Fig. 292) and the line E (Fig 294) represent the 
creasing or folding line for the undercloak. The latter line, 
in Fig. 294, is divided into spaces equal to those on the 
contour of Fig. 292 ; horizontal lines drawn through them 
and the length of each line taken off with a pair of com- 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



149 



passes are marked on Fig. 294, and the points thus found 
are joined by freehand. The necessary distances, which 
can be found from Fig. 293, being marked for the under- 
cloak and the overcloak respectively, show the margins for 
cutting out. The other, or left-hand, bay is set out in a 
similar manner, except that it is the other hand, and the 





Fig-. 295.— Section of Centre 
Roll. 



Fig. 29 L— Lead Bay for Turret Roof. 



horizontal distances should be taken from the firm lines 
which show the sides of the centre and hip rolls. 

The term "herringbone " is applied to a certain way in 
which the rolls are fixed on a dome or turret to be covered 
with lead. In addition to the rolls from the base to the 
apex, are others which are fixed slantwise between them. 
These sloping rolls sometimes intersect about midway in 
the bays. In addition to giving an ornamental appearance, 



150 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



they form a very good fixing for the lead and prevent it 
" crawling " downwards under atmospheric influences. The 




Fig. 296.— Elevation and Plan of Octagonal Turret Roof. 



head is cut to shape and bossed to the rolls as for ordinary 
lead work on roofs. 

The best method of setting out lead bays for an 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 



151 



octagonal turret roof is as follows : If the roof is already- 
constructed, horizontal lines should be drawn between 
the hip rolls at equal distances (say 6 in.) apart, measured 
on the surface of the roof as shown in the elevation half 
of Fig. 296. The lower half of the figure, and the vertical 
dotted lines, are drawn only as aids to finding the true 
position in the elevation of the hip rolls to the centre bay, 
so as to be able to measure the width of the latter at all 
parts. Similar horizontal, and a centre perpendicular, 
lines must be drawn on the piece of lead to be used, and 
the dimensions transferred one at a time from the roof to 




Fig. 297. — Lead Bay for Octagonal Turret Roof. 



the lead, and the points joined together by freehand, as 
shown by Fig. 297. Outside the lines thus found, draw 
others 4 in. and 8 in. distant for the undercloak and over- 
cloak respectively. The sides of the bay must be then 
bossed upright ; or, if the contour of the roof is very round 
or very hollow, they can be doubled down flat until placed 
in position, and afterwards worked up and dressed to the 
rolls. If the bays are not very large, the nailing on the 
top end, and also the undercloaks to the rolls, will sup- 
port them. With a roof of this shape, the grip of the 
metal on the rolls will also help to support it. If the bays 
are put on in two pieces, or if laced rolls are used between 
the hip rolls, further support is obtained without the use 



152 PR AG TIG AL PLUMBERS' WORK. 

of soldered dots. About three copper tacks can be used 
to each bay to hold up the bottom edge. The covering for 
the top should be bossed out of a round piece of lead, and 
the bottom edge should lie on the roof for from 6 in. to 
9 in., to cover the nailing and make it watertight at that 
point. Copper nails should be used in preference to iron. 

The covering of domes — hemispheres — with sheet lead 
will now be described. Seam rolls should be made, as lead 
on a dome with wooden rolls almost invariably leaks at 
the parts close to the base, which are nearly upright. 
With a dome 50 ft. in diameter the bays of 8-lb. lead 
could not be cut out of one piece of metal ; neither would 
it be advisable to do so, as the fixings would not be strong. 
Horizontal laps would have to be arranged on an average 
of 7 ft. apart. The lower laps should be about 6 in. ; those 
nearer the apex 12 in. For the rolls, to average 2 ft. 3 in. 
apart, measured on centres, the width at the base would 
be about 4 ft. 6 in. The number of rolls may be 3*1416 x 
50 -f 4 ft. 6 in. = 35. As it would be difficult to make a 
good finish at the apex if all the rolls were to meet at a 
point, they should be cut about 3 ft. short, and they should 
be made to finish at a drip to a raised portion, a capping 
piece of lead being fixed over the whole. 

In measuring a dome of this kind it is best to measure 
the surface, and to this add the extra lead on the rolls, laps, 
and on the edge of the capping which is worked over the 
top ends of the rolls. The dome surface measures 50 ft. x 
3-1416 x 25 ft. (or half the diameter) = 3,927 ft. superficial. 
The length of rolls is 50 x 3*1416 -f4 = 39*27, and from this 
- 3 ft. = 36*27, or, say, 36 ft. 3 in., to which should be 
added 3 in. for dressing on the drip at the top end, thus 
making a net length of 36 ft. 6 in. On setting out a section 
of the roll, if the finished roll is 2 in. across and stands 
2 in. above the boarding, the " undercloak " requires 3j in. 
of lead and the " overcloak " 6 in. of lead. Therefore 
36 ft. 6 in. x 9£ in. - 28' 10" 9"'. This, multiplied by the 
number of rolls, gives: 28' 10" 9'" x 35 = 1,011' 4" 3'"— the 
total net amount of lead in rolls. 

The number of horizontal laps in the bays = 36 ft. 3 in. 
-i-7 = 5, the number of pieces of lead which — 1 = 4 as the 
number of laps. The depth of the laps = 6 in. + 1 ft. ~ 2 
= 9 in. as an approximate average. For length of laps, 



LEADWOBK ON ROOFS. 153 

2 ft. 3 in. (net length) + 9j in. (in rolls) = 3 ft, \ in., and 

3 ft. i in. x 9 in. = 2 ft, 3j in. nearly. And 2 ft. 3| in. x 

4 x 35 = 320' 10" superficial as the extra amount of lead in 
laps. 

Assuming that the capping lead laps 6 in. on the roll 
ends and drip, there will be an extra on the dimensions 
of a ring of lead 6 in. wide and measuring 6 ft. inside. 
Then 7 ft. (outside dimension) squared and x -7854 = 
38*4846. From this deduct the inner piece, which was 
measured in the dome, = 6 ft. squared x *7854 = 28'*2744. 
Then 38*4846 - 28*2744 = 10 / *2102 or 10 ft. 3 in. (nearly) as 
the size of the extra lead on margin of capping. Then 

ft. in. 
3,927 on dome 
1,011 4j extra on rolls 

320 10 ,, laps 

10 3 ,, capping 



5,269 5j total superficial feet 
8 lb. lead 



42,155 6 lb. of lead 

or 18 tons 16 cwt. 1 qr. 15j lbs. as the total weight of lead 
necessary to cover the dome. 

The simplest method of measuring up the lead on a 
dome is to measure up the superficial area of the dome, 
and add to that sum sufficient to account for all rolls and 
passings, ete. To find the area of a dome, assume that 
it is a true hemisphere, the rule is : Diameter of base x 
3*1416 x vertical height. Example: A dome 20 ft. in dia- 
meter, and covered with 7-lb. sheet lead ; 20 x 3*1416 x 10 
= 628*32 super, ft. This dimension x 7 = 4398*24 lb. = 
weight of lead on the dome. On such a dome would be 
about twenty-six rolls, running from the eaves to the 
apex ; and each roll would require a strip of lead 8 in. in 
width. The length of the rolls would be (20 x 3*1416) -*- 4 
= 15*7, or say, 15 ft. 9 in. Then 15 ft. 9 in. x 8 in. x 26 x 
7 lb. = 1911 lb. Added together = 4398*24 + 1911 = 6309*24 
lb., or 2 tons 16 cwt. 27J lb. = the total weight of the dome. 
Any horizontal laps or passings, owing to the bays being 
put on in two or more pieces, would have to be allowed 



154 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



for, and the extra weight added to the above total. A 
further allowance would have to be made if an apron were 
fixed round the base, or any ornament or finial fixed on 
the apex. 

Below is described the correct method of covering a 
wood finial with lead. It is assumed that the finial sur- 
mounts a slated roof that has lead hip rolls. The hip rolls 
should first be covered with lead in the ordinary way, the 
top ends of the lead being well nailed to the wood rolls 
near the finial. The wood base of the latter should be 
rebated, about 3 in. up from the roof, and a lead apron 
put on, the bottom lying on the slates about 1 ft. or 18 in., 
and be worked over the hip rolls, the top edge being 




Fig. 293. — Lead-covered Finial. 



dressed into the rebate. The finial can then be covered 
with a piece of sheet lead bossed to the shape, or a piece 
of 4-in. or 4-2-in. lead pipe placed on the wood block, the 
neck worked in beneath the ball, and then the top end 
closed by bossing. A skilful plumber would cover the 
finial with one piece of lead and have it large enough to 
lay on the slated roof some 2 ft. or 3 ft., and trim the 
bottom edge to an ornamental pattern ; but one who was 
not skilled should not attempt this, as he would most likely 
break all the heading slates, and there would be consider- 
able difficulty in repairing them. 

For use in covering the wood finial of a dormer window 
with 6-lb. lead, the finial being 2 ft. high and 2^ in. in 
diameter, with a 4^-in. ball on top, prepare a mandrel 



LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 155 

4| in. diameter and 2 ft. long, one end made quite round. 
Work an upstand in the centre of a piece of sheet-lead that 
will cover this mandrel, pass the lead over the finial, and 
dress the lead close on to the wood of the finial and down 
the ridges as an apron. The mandrel may be made of any 
kind of wood, and need not have the same finish as a pipe 
mandrel. An alternative method is to get a piece of sheet 
lead 2 ft. 6 in. long by 15 in. wide, and burn the two edges 
together. This burning can be done as described in 
Chapter VI., or the lead can be laid on a piece of board 
3 ft. long by 3 in. wide, with the top covered with paper 
well smeared with tallow, and two hatched-shaped solder- 
ing bolts used red-hot, with a strip of lead as solder, 
and plenty of tallow as a flux. There will thus be ob- 
tained the equivalent of a piece of drawn pipe. By bossing 
one end over into the shape of half a bail and soldering 
the small hole at the top, it can be dropped over the finial 
and dressed to the smaller part. 

The finial shown by Fig. 298 is 8 ft. 6 in. high, turned 
and moulded out of 6-in. by 6-in. wood ; the scroll feet are 
four in number with 1 ft. 9 in. projection, 2 ft. 3 in. high and 
6 in. thick. The base has four arms, each 1 ft. 9 in', long. 
In covering such a finial with lead, the four-armed base 
should be covered first. To do this lay the wood block on 
a piece of 7-lb. sheet lead and scribe all round with a pair 
of blunt compasses set to a width of 11 in., leaving a gusset 
piece in the internal angles for working up the break. Boss 
the lead to the sides and work over the top edges. Then 
begin at the outer ends of the arms and boss seams from 
the ends towards the centre, leaving the latter part open 
and standing up 3 in. high for bossing round the terminal 
post. Another method would be to boss the lead to the 
sides and 1 in. over the top edge, then burn in a piece of 
lead to cover the top side and work up holes on the top 
and bottom sides to fit round the post. The post b a can 
be covered with a piece of 7^-in. or 8-in. 7-lb. lead soil pipe 
bossed tightly home to the woodwork. The curved feet 
can be covered with strips of lead 14 in. wide, bent all round 
the top and bottom sides of the scroll and then bossed on 
each cheek or side until the edges of the lead meet in the 
centre of the cheeks. The seam down the centre of each 
cheek can be bossed or burned together. 



INDEX. 



Acetate of Lead, 10 

Air, Action of, on Lead, 10 

Alderson, George, 16 

Anti-D-trap, *53 

Astragal Joints, *58, 80 

Atomic Weight of Lead, 11, 12 

Balls, Pipe Bending with, ::: 50, 51 

Basic Acetate of Lead, 10 

Bays, Lead, for Octagonal Turret 

Roof, *150-152 
Bend Bolt, *18 
Bend, Return, 53 

, Right Angle, *53 

Bending Dresser, 18 

Funnel Pipes, *48-*51 

— ■ Pipes, 46 

with Balls and Followers, 



*50 



50 



Bobbins, *48, 49, 

; Chalking Bend, 50 

; Dummying, 50 

■ by Sand Method, 52, 53 

— , Softening Pipe for, 50 

, Tommy for, ::: 52 

by Water Method, 52, 53 

■: Winching, 52 

■ Service Pipe, 52 

Soil Pipes, *48-*51 

Stick, ::: 19 

Bent Pipes, 53 

■ ■ Shave Hook, *18 

W x edge, *19 

Bird's-mouth Joint, *58 
Bit, Copper, 18 

, Hatchet Copper, 18 

Block Flange Joint, *57, 79 

Taft Joint, *57 

Blowlamps for Joint Wiping, 76 
Blowpipe, Brass, 18 

Solder, 25 

Bobbins for Pipe Bending, *43-50 
Bolt, Bend, *18 
Bossing Mallet, *18 

Stick, *19 

Tray, *32 

Bossing-up in Pipe Bending, 53. 54 

Sheet Lead, 33-37 

to a Break, 36 

Sink Lining, 41 

Bottle-nosed Drip, *110, 111 
Branch Joints, Burning, 104 

on Small Pipe, 85, 86 

, Wiping, 77 

Soil-pipe Joint, 104 

Brass Fittings, Soldering, 

Compo, 86 

, Soldering, 29 

Break, Bossing-up Sheet Lead to, 

35, 36 
Buckle in Bent Pipe, *48 
Burning Lead Flashings. 133 (see 

also Lead-burning) 



to 



Butted Joint, Burning, 102 

Seam, Lead-burning, v 102 

Cane Dummy, Making, 46 

Carbonate of Lead, 10 

Casting Lead, 13 

Casting-frame, 12 

Cast-iron Pipe Jointed to Lead 

Pipe, 61 

, Wiping Lead Pipe to, 30 

Catspaw Cloth, 18 

Cesspool, Lining, *116, 117 

Chalk Line, *18 

Chalking Bend in Pipe, 50 

Chase Wedges, *19 

Chemical Symbol for Lead, 10 

Chimney Flashings, *131 

Chipping Knife, 18 

Chisel, Cold, 18 

Cistern, Lead-lined, *43 

, Limewhiting, 42, 43 

, Slate, Lead Lining of, 44, 45 

, Weights of Lead for, 108 

Cleaning Solder, 29 
Cloth, Catspaw, 18 

, Wiping, 18, 67, 68 

Coal-gas for Lead-burning, 94 
Collars used in Wiping Upright; 

Joints, 69 
Compasses, *18 
Copper, Advantages of, for Roof 

Work, 106, 107 

, Conductivity of, 105 

■ Fittings, Soldering, to Compo, 

86 

, Fusibility of, 105 

■ Pipes, Wiping Joints on, 82 

for Roof Work, 107 

, Soldering, 29 

, Tinned, Lining Sinks with, 

45 

, Tinning, 83 

Copper-bit Joint, *56, 84, 85 

Overcast Joint, *56 

Solder, 25 

Copper-bits, 18 
Cornice Gutters, *120 

Coupling Lead Pipes to Machinery, 
74 

, Screw, for Lead Pipes, 74, 75 

Crawling Down of Lead, 106 

Creed, James, 15 

Curb Roll, *111, 112 

Cutting out Flashings, *131, 132 

Cutting Pliers, 19 

Domes, Covering, with Lead, 152-154 

, Measuring, 152 

Doorway in Roof, *140 

Dormer Window, *138, 139 

Dots, Soldered, *30, *112 

Double Welt, *110 

Drawing Knife for Sheet Lead, 12 

Dresser, 18 



INDEX. 



157 



132 



132 
Sheet 



Dresser, Bending, *18 

- -— for Pipe Bending, 46 
Drip, Bottle-nosed, -110, 111 
, Gutter, *110 

, Hollow-nose, *1I0 

— , Splayed, *110 

, Square Gutter, *110 

■ , Welted, *111 

Dummies for Pipe Bending, "46, 47 

, Hand, *18 

, Long, *18 

Dummying Pipes, 50 

Elbow, Lead, *53 

, Soldered, *53 

Electrolysis in Pipes, 16 

Expansion Joints, 80, 81 

Finial, Covering, with Lead, 154, 
155 

Fireproof Material for Roof Work, 
107 

Fixing Point, Steel, 19 

Flange Joint, *56 

, Wiping, 78, 79 

Flapper for Pipe Bending, *47 

Flashings, Burning, 132, 133 

, Chimney, *131 

, Cutting out, *131, 

■ , Fixing, 131, 132 

, Folding, 132 

, Lead for, 108 

•, Marking Off, 131, 

Flat, Covering, with Sheet Leal, 
112, 113 

Lead 122 

\ Weights of Lead for, 108 

, Welted Edge of, *110 

Flux for Solder, 29 

Folding Flashings, 132 

Followers for Pipe Bending, ::: 50 

Footpan for Lead Casting, 12 

Funnel Pipes, Bending, *48-*51 

Fusibility of Roof Coverings, 105 

Galvanised Iron Cisterns, Lime- 
whiting, 42, 43 

• ■ , Soldering, 29 

Gauge Hook. *18, 64 

Gas for Lead-burning, 93, 84 

Gasfitter's Solder, 25 

Gutters, Cornice, *120 

, Determining Size of, 121, 122 

, Drip, *110 

- — , Lining, *117, 118 

, Mansard, *120 

, Measuring Lead for, *117, 118 

, Parapet, Lining, *119, *120 

, Secret, *120. 121 

, Hip, 121 

, Upright, '*120 

, Valley, *120 

, Water Grooves for, 122 

, Weights of Lead for, 108 

Hague's Improved Pipes, 16 

" Half-and-half " Solder, 28 

Hand Dummy, 18 

Hatches, Gutter for, -143, 144 

in Roofs. *140, 141 

, Soakers for, 141 



Hatchet Copper Bit, 18 

Herringbone Rolls on Roofs, 149 

Hips, Weight of Lead for, 108 

Hollow-nose Drip, *110 

Hook, Bent Shave, :;: 18 

, Gauge, *18, 64 

, Quench, *18 

, Shave, *18 

, Spoon, *18 

Horizontal Branch Joints, ::; 59, *60 

■ Wiped Joint, 55 

Hydrogen Gas Machine for Lead- 
burning, 89, :;: 94 

, Air Supply for, 93, 

99 

, Charging, 97, 98 

— - , Flame of, 100, 101 

, Using, 101, 102 

Ingots, Solder, *27, 28 

Iron Cisterns, Limewhiting, 42, 43 

, Tinning, 29, 30 

Jack Plane, 19 

Joint, Astragal, *58, 80 

Bird's-mouth, *58 

Block Flange, *57, 79 

Taft, *57 

Blown, *30 

Branch, Burning, 77, *1G4 

Soil-pipe, *59 

Burned-lead Branch, *60 
Butted, Burning, 102 
Copper-bit, *30, :;: 56, 84, 85 

Overcast, *56 

Expansion, 80 
Flange, *56, 78, 79 
Horizontal Branch, ::: 59 
Lap, *109 

Lapped, Burning, 102 
Overcast, *56 
Pipe, Burning, *104 
Plain Seam Soldered, *30 

Soldered, *109 

Ribbon, *56 

Service Pipe, *58 

Soil-pipe, *61 

Soldered, on Small Pipes, 73 

Stoneware, *61 

Taft, *58 78 

on Tin-lined Pipes, 82 

Underhand, 62-88 (for details 

see Underhand Joint) 

Upright (for details see Up- 
right Joint) 

Welt, *109 

Wiped, *56 

Branch, *30 

Flange, *30 

- Wiping, 62-74 

, Amount of Solder for, 72 

, Blowlamp for, 76 

on Copper Pipes, 82, 83 

■ , Soil or Smudge for, 60-62 

■' with Splash-stick and 

Soldering Iron, 75 

Jointing Pipes, 55-86 

Sheet Lead, 109, 110 

Knife, Chipping, *18 



158 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



12 



Ladle, *18 

Lap Joint, *109 

Lapped Joint, Burning, 102 

■ Vertical Seam, Burning, *103 

Laying Lead, 114-116 
Lead, Advantages of, for Roof 
Work, 106, 107 

, Atomic Weight of, 11, 

, Basic Acetate of, 10 

Bossing, *33-36 

, Calculating Weight of, by 

Measuring, 14 
■ , Carbonate of, 10 

Casting, 13 

, Chemical Symbol for, 10 

Cisterns, Limewhiting, 42, 43 

, Conductivity of, 105 

, Crawling Down of, 108 

Flashings, Burning, 133 

Flat, Laying, 122 

, Fusibility of, 105 

Influenced by Temperature, 

113, 114 

, Insonorousness of, 107 

, Laying, 114-116 

, Lasting Power of, 106 

, Lining Tank with, 42 

, Malleability of, 14 

, Manufacture of, 10 

, Melting Point of, 10, 107 

, Milled, 13 

— — Mining, 10 

, Moist Air's Action on, 10 

, Oxidation of, 10, 11 

, Particulars of, 10 

, Pig, 12 

Pipe Screw Coupling, 74, 75 

, Wiping Cast-iron Pipe to, 

80, 81 

, Quality of, 14 

, Sheet, 12 

, , Casting, 12 

, , Weight of, 13 

Sheets, Milled, 13 

■ , , Making, 14 

1 1 sizes of, 13, 14 

, Softness of, 14, 105 

, Specific Gravity of, 11, 12, 15, 

28 

, Thickness of, 105 

, Water's Action on, 10 

, Weighing, 15 

, Weight of, 106, 108 

, Workableness of, 106 

Lead-burning, 87-104 

, Advantage of, 88 

■ , Apparatus for, *89 

Branch Pipe Joint, 104 

Butted Joint, 102 

Seam, *102 

, Coal-gas for, 94 

, Domestic Uses of, 89 

, Gas Used in, 93, 94 

■ Hand-made Pipes, 104 

, Horizontal, *103, 104 

, Hydrogen for, 89 

, Apparatus for, *04 



Lead-burning Lapped Joint, *102 

Machine, 92 

, Air Supply for, 98, 99 

, Air-chamber of, *92 

, Breeches Piece for, *94 

, Charging, 97, 98 

, Cylinder for, *92 

-, , Flame of, 100, 101 

-, Gas for, 93, 94 

, Generator of, *93 

-, Using, 94, 101, 102 

Pipe Joints, *104 

Rainwater Pipes, 104 

■ Seams in Lead Sheet, 102 

, Side, *103 

Soil Pipes, 104 

, Upright, *1G3 

Pipe Joint, *104 

, Uses of, 88 

, Vertical, *103 

• ■ Lapped Seam, *103, 104 

Level, Adjustable, 18 
Limewhite, 42 
Limewhiting Cisterns, 42, 43 
Lining Cesspool, *116, 117 

Gutter, *117, 118 

Parapet Gutter, *119, 120 

Sinks with Pewter, 45 

Tinned Copper, 45 

Slate Cistern with Lead, 44, 45 

Wooden Tank with Lead, 43 

Litharge, 11 

Machine-made Pipes, Presses for, 

16 
Malleability of Lead, 14 
Mallet, Bossing, *18 

, Tomahawk, *18 

, Wedge, *18 

Mandrel for Pipe Bending, *46 
Mansard Roof Gutter, *120 
Maurice, Peter, 15 
Melting Point of Lead, 10, 107 

Pot for Sheet Lead Casting, 

12 

Milled Lead, 13 

■ Sheets, 13 

1 Making, 14 

1 Si ze f } ^ i4 

, Thickness of, 13 

, Weight of, 13, 14 

Mining, Lead, 10 

Moist Air, Action of, on Lead, 10 

Morris, Peter, 15 

Muffles for Lead Casting, 13 

Nails for Roof Work, 134 

Octagonal Turret Roof, Covering, 

151, 152 
Offsett Pipe, *53 
Overcast Joint, *56 
Oxidation of Lead, 10, 11 
Parapet Gutters, *120 

, Lining, *119, 120 

Pewter, Lining Sinks with, 45 
Pewterer's Blowpipe Solder, 25 
Pig Lead, 12 
Pipe Bending, 46-54 

, Cane Dummy for, 46 



INDEX. 



159 



15 



74 
of, 17 



16 



Pipe Bending, Dressers for, 46 

, Dummies for, *46, 47 

, Mallet for, 46 

, Mandrel for, *46 

, Tools for, *46 

■ Jointing, 55-86 

- — ■ Joints, Lead-burning, *104 

■ Making Machine, Creed's, 

Pipes, Alderson's, 16 

, Coupling, to Machinery, 

, Determining Thickness 

, - — - Weight of, 17 

- — , Electrolysis and, 16 

, Hague's Improved, 16 

• , Hand-made Lead, 16 

, , Burning, 104 

, Machine-made Lead, 16 

, , Presses for Making, 

, Morris's, 15 

, Rainwater, Burning, 104 

, Romans' Use of, 15 

, Seamless Lead, 16 

, Small, Soldered Joints on, 84 

-— , Soil, Burning, 104 

, Solid Rolled, 15 

, Soldered Joints on Small, 73 

■ , Thicknesses of Lead, 20 

, Tin-lined Lead, 16 

, Weights of Lead, 20 

■ , Wilkinson's, 15 

Plane, Jack, 19 

Planing in Lead Casting, 13 

Pliers, Cutting, 19 

, Two-hole, *19 

Plumber, Duties of, 9 

Plumbers' Tools, 18, 19 

Plumbing: Origin of Word, 9 

Point, Steel Fixing, 19 

P-trap, 53 

Quench Hook, 18 

Raglet, *112 

Rainwater Pipes, Burning, 104 

Rasp, *19 

Red-lead, 11 

Reel, 18 

Return Bend, *53 

Ribbon Joint, *56 

Ridge, Covering, with Lead, *137 

, Weight of Lead for, 108 

Right-angle Bend, *53 
Roll, Curb, *111, 112 

, Seam, *111, 112 

, Taurus, *111, 112 

Rolled Wiped Joint, 55 
Roof Coverings, Conductivity of, 
105 

■ , Firmness of, 105 

, Fusibility of, 105 

Doorway, 140 

Work, 105-155 

Roofs, Sloping, Material for, 106 

Rule, Plumber's, *19 

Safe, Lead, *32 

Salts, Spirits of, 29 

Sand Method of Pipe Bending, 52 

Saw, *19 

Screw Coupling, Lead Pipe, 74, 75 



Screw Wrench, 19 
Screwdriver, *19 
Seam Roll, *111, 112 
Seamless Pipes, 16 
Seams, Burning, 102 
Secret Gutters, *120, 121 
Service Pipe, Bending, 52 

Joint, *58 

Setting-in Stick, *19 
Shark's Jaw Wrench, 19 
Shave Hook, 18, 65 
Shears, *19 

Sheet Lead, 12 

, Bossing-up, 33-37 

, , to a Break, 36 

, Casting, 12 

Flapper, *47 

, Jointing, 109, 110 

for Roof Work, 134 

% Weights of, 14, 108 

Working, 31-45 

Sink, Relining, *36-41 

, , Bossing-up Lead for, 41 

, , Pattern of Lead for, *39 

, , Soldering Lead in, *41 

, , Thickness of Lead for, 

39 

Waste Pipes, 38-40 

Sinks, Lining, with Pewter, 45 
Skylight Construction, *145 
Slate Cistern, Lead-lining, 44 
Sloping Roof, Covering, 135, 136 

, Material for, 106 

Smudge, 60-62 

Softening Pipe, 50 
Softness of Lead, 14 
Soil Pipes, 60-62 
, Bending, *48-*51 

, Burning, 104 

, Joints for, 61 

" Soil " or Smudge, 60-62 
Solder, 25-29 

-, Avoiding Burning of, 23 

, Blowpipe, 25 

, Cleaning, 29 

, Colour of, 25, 26 

, Copper-bit, 25 

, Excluding Zinc from, 28 

, Extracting Zinc from, 29 

, Fine, 25 

, Flux for, 29 

, Gasfltter's, 25 

, "Half-and-half," 28 

, Ingots for, *27, 23 

Making, 25, 26, 27 

■ , Pot for, *25, 26 

, Materials for, 26, 27 

, Pewterer's Blowpipe, 25 

, Plumber's Fine, 25 

Pot, *19, 25, 26 

, Strip, 25 

, , Mould for, *28 

, Test for, 25 

, Tinman's Copper-bit, 25 

, Wiping, 25 

, Angles with, 44 

Soldered Dots, *30, -112 



160 



PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 



Soldered Elbow, *53 

Joint, Plain Seam, *30 

in Sheet Lead, :; 109 

■ on Small Pipes, 73, 84 

Soldering Brass, 29 

■ and Copper Fittings to 

Compo, 86 

• Copper, 29 

, Flux for, 29 

■ Galvanised Iron, 29 

■ Iron, *18 

Lead in Helming Sink, *41 

, Spirit of Salts for, 29 

, Tallow for, 29 

■ Tinplate, 29 

, Touching, 29 

Wrought-iron, 29 

Zinc, 29 

Solid Rolled Pipes, 15 

Specific Gravity of Lead, 11, 12, 15, 23 

■ Tin, 28 

Spires, Material for, 106 

Splayed Drip, *110 

Spoon Hook, *18 

Square, Plumber's, *19 

Stairs, Covering, with Lead, 31 

Stoneware Pipe Jointed to Lead 

Pipe, 61 
S-trap, *53 
Strip Solder, 25 
Taft Joint, 58, 78 
Tallow used as Flux, 29 
Tank, Lining, with Lead, 42-44 
Taurus Roll, *111, 112 
Thicknesses of Pipes, Table of, 20 
Thumb Wedge, *19 
Tin, Specific Gravity of, 28 
Tin-lined Pipes, Wiping Joints on,82 
Tinman's Copper-bit Solder, 25 
Tinned Copper, Lining Sinks with, 

45 
Tinning Iron and Copper, 29, 83 
Tinplate, Soldering, 29 
Tomahawk Mallet, *18 
Tommy for Pipe Bending, *52 
Tool -bag, Plumber's, 23, 24 
Tool-chest, Plumber's, *21-23 
Tools for Pipe Bending, *46, 47 

, Plumbers', 18, 19 

" Touching," 29 

Towers, Material for Covering, 103 

Traps, *53 

Tray, Lead, *32 

Turret Roof, Covering, with Lead, 

*145-150 
Turnpins, *19 

Underhand Joint, Preparing, 62 
Wiping, *62-68 

, Dressing out Pipes 

for, *64 

• , Gauge used in, *64 

, Shave-hook for, 65 

: Squareness cf 

Ends, *64 

Wiped Joint, 55 



Upright Joint, *68-*70 

■ , Collars for, -69, 70 

, Wiping, 70 

Valley Gutters, *120 

, Weights of Lead for, 108 

Voltaic Action in Lead Work, 44 
Waggon for Sheet Lead, 12 
Walls, Burning Flashings to, 1^3 
Water, Action of, on Lead, 10, 15, 16 

■ Grooves for Gutters, 122 

Method of Pipe Bending, 52, 53 

Wedge, Bent, *19 

Mallet, *18 

Narrow Bevel, *19 

Chase, *19 

Thumb, *19 
Wide Bevel, *19 

. Chase, *19 

Weighing Lead, 15 
Weight of Lead, 106, 108 

of Pipes, Finding, 17 

■ , Table of, 20 

Sheet Lead, 14, 103 

Weights for Pipe Bending, *48, 49 
Welt, Double, *110 

Joint, *109 

Welted Drip, *110, *1U 

Edge of Lead Flat, »110 

White Lead, 11 
Wilkinson, John, 15 
Winching, 52 

Window, Dormer, *138, 139 
Wiped Joints, ::: 56 

• , Horizontal, 55 

, Rolled, 55 

, Underhand, 55 

■ , Upright, 68-70 

Wiping Block Flange Joint, 79 

Branch Joint, 77 

■ Cast-iron Pipe to Lead Pipe, 

80, ai 

Cloths, 18, 67, 68 

Flange Joints, 78, 79 

Joints, Amount of Solder for, 72 

- — ■ , Blowlamp for, 76 

on Copper Pipes, 82, 83 

with Splash-stick and 

Soldering Iron, 75 

■ on Tin-lined Pipes, 82 

Lead Pipe to Cast-iron Pipe, 

80, 81 
Solder, 25 

Taft Joints, 78 

Wood Finial, Covering, with Lead, 

154, 155 
Wooden Tank, Lining, with Lead, 

43, 44 
Wrench, Screw, *19 

, Shark's Jaw, *19 

Wrought-iron, Soldering, 29 
Zinc, Conductivity of, 105 

, Excluding, from Solder, 28 

, Extracting, from Solder, 29 

, Fusibility of, 105 

, Soldering, 29 



Printed by Cassell and Company, L'mited, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. 



ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 

CONTAINING 

FACTS, FORMULAE, TABLES AND QUESTIONS 

ON POWER, ITS GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND MEASUREMENT; 
HEAT, FUEL AND STEAM ; THE STEAM-BOILER AND ACCESSORIES ; 
STEAM-ENGINES AND THEIR PARTS ; THE STEAM-ENGINE IN- 
DICATOR; GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES; MATERIALS, 
THEIR PROPERTIES AND STRENGTH: 

TOGETHER WITH A 

DISCUSSION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL EXPERIMENTS IN 

ELECTRICITY, 

AND AN EXPLANATION OF 

DYNAMOS, MOTORS, BATTERIES, SWITCHBOARDS, TELE- 
PHONES, BELLS, ANNUNCIATORS, ALARMS, Etc., 

AND ALSO 

RULES FOR CALCULATING SIZES OF WIRES. 

BY 

STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer, 

AUTHOR OF 

" Roper's Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines/' 
"Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive," "Roper's Hand-Book of 
Land and Marine Engines," "Roper's Hand-Book of Modern 
Steam-Fire Engines," "Young Engineer's Own Book," 
"Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler," "Ques- 
tions and Answers for Engineers," etc. 

FIFTEENTH EDITION. 

REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED BY 

EDWIN R. KELLER, M. E., 

AND 

CLAYTON W. PIKE, B. S., 

Ex-President of the Electrical Section of the Franklin Institute. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
DAVID McKAY, 

610 South Washington Square. 
1905. 



PRICE, POSTPAID, $3.50. SEND FOR CIRCULARS, 



MMT31 1005 

ROPER'S 
Practical Hand -Books 

For Engineers and Firemen, 



NEW REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 

HANDY-BOOK FOR STEAM ENGINEERS 

AND ELECTRICIANS* 

PRICE, $3.50. 

Roper's Catechism for Steam Engineers and Electric- 
ians, $2*00 

Roper's Questions and Answers for Steam Engineers 

and Electricians, . . 2.00 

Roper's Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines, . 3.50 

Roper's Care and Management of the Steam Boiler, 2*00 

Roper's Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler, .... 2«00 

Roper's Young Engineers' Own Book, 2*50 

Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive, 2*50 

Roper's Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers 

and Firemen, 2*00 

Roper's Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire Engines, . 3*50 



DAVID MCKAY, Publisher, 

610 South "Washington Square, Philadelphia. 



Complete Descriptive Circulars Mailed Free on Application. 
Send for them. 



TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

Important New Series of Practical Volumes. Edited by PAUL N. HASLUCK. 
With numerous Illustrations in the Text. Each book contains about 1 60 pages, 
crown 8vo. Cloth, $1.00 each, postpaid. 

Practical Draughtsmen's Work. With 226 Illustrations. 

Contents. — Drawing Boards. Paper and Mounting. Draughtsmen's Instruments. 
Drawing Straight Lines. Drawing Circular Lines. Elliptical Curves. Projection. 
Back Lining Drawings. Scale Drawings and Maps. Colouring Drawings. Making a 
Drawing. Index. 

Practical Gasfitting. With 120 Illustrations. 

Contents. — How Coal Gas is Made. Coal Gas from the Retort to the Gas Holder. 
Gas Supply from Gas Holder to Meter. Laying the Gas Pipe in the House. Gas 
Meters. Gas Burners. Incandescent Lights. Gas Fittings in Workshops and Theatres. 
Gas Fittings for Festival Illuminations. Gas Fires and Cooking Stoves. Index. 

Practical Staircase Joinery. With 215 Illustrations. 

Contents. — Introduction: Explanation of Terms. Simple form of Staircase — Housed 
String Stair: Measuring, Planning, and Setting Out. Two-flight Staircase. Staircase 
with Winders at Bottom. Staircase with "Winders at Top and Bottom. Staircase with 
Half-space of Winders. Staircase over an Oblique Plan. Staircase with Open or Cut 
Strings. Cut String Staircase with Brackets. Open String Staircase with Bull-nose 
Step. Geometrical Staircases. Winding Staircases. Ships' Staircases. Index. 

Practical Metal Plate Work. With 247 Illustrations. 

Contents. — Materials used in Metal Plate "Work. Geometrical Construction of Plane 
Figures. Geometrical Construction and Development of Solid Figures. Tools and 
Appliances used in Metal Plate Work. Soldering and Brazing. Tinning. Re-tinning, 
and Galvanising. Examples of Practical Metal Plate Work. Examples of Practical 
Pattern Drawing. Index. 

Practical Graining and Marbling. With 79 Illustrations. 

Contents. — Graining: Introduction, Tools and Mechanical Aids. Graining Grounds 
and Graining Colors. Oak Graining in Oil. Oak Graining in Spirit and Water Colours. 
Pollard Oak and Knotted Oak Graining. Maple Graining. Mahogany and Pitch-pine 
Graining. Walnut Graining. Fancy Wood Graining. Furniture Graining. Imitating 
Woods by Staining. Imitating Inlaid Woods. Marbling: Introduction, Tools, and 
Materials. Imitating Varieties of Marble. Index. 

Painters' Oils, Colors and Varnishes. With Numerous Illustrations. 

Contents. — Painters' Oils. Color and Pigments. White Pigments. Blue Pigments. 
Chrome Pigments. Lake Pigments. Green Pigments. Red Pigments. Brown and Black 
Pigments. Yellow and Orange Pigments. Bronze Colors. Driers. Paint Grinding and 
Mixing. Gums, Oils, and Solvents for Varnishes. Varnish Manufacture. Index. 

Ready Shortly : 
Practical Plumbing Work. 

Other New Volumes in Preparation, 

DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. 



